Historical Development of Nursing Essay Example

Historical Development of Nursing Essay Historical Development of Nursing Timeline Create a 700- to 1,050-word timeline paper of the historical development of nursing science, starting with Florence Nightingale and continuing to the present. Format the timeline however you wish, but the word count and assignment requirements must be met. Include the following in your timeline: †¢ Explain the historical development of nursing science by citing specific years, theories, theorists, and events in the history of nursing. Explain the relationship between nursing science and the profession. †¢ Include the influences on nursing science of other disciplines, such as philosophy, religion, education, anthropology, the social sciences, and psychology. Prepare to discuss your timeline with your Learning Team or in class. Format all references consistent with APA guidelines. Copyright  © 2013 Penn Nursing Science, University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing http://www. nursing. upenn. edu/nhhc/Pages/AmericanNursingIntroduct ion. aspx http://www. nursing. penn. edu/nhhc/Welcome%20Page%20Content/American%20Nursing. pdf Nursing Theories. The Base for Professional Nursing Practice, Sixth Edition Chapter 2: Nursing Theory and Clinical Practice ISBN: 9780135135839  Author: Julia B. GeorgeRN, PhD copyright  © 2011  Pearson Education lorence Nightingale believed that the force for healing resides within the human being and that, if the environment is appropriately supportive, humans will seek to heal themselves. Her 13 canons indicate the areas of environment of concern to nursing. These are ventilation and warming, health of houses (pure air, pure water, efficient drainage, cleanliness, and light), petty management (today known as continuity of care), noise, variety, taking food, what food, bed and bedding, light, cleanliness of rooms and walls, personal cleanliness, chattering hopes and advices, and observation of the sick. Hildegard E. Peplau focused on the interpersonal relationship between the nurse and the patient. The three phases of this relationship are orientation, working, and termination. The relationship is initiated by the patient’s felt need and termination occurs when the need is met. Both the nurse and the patient grow as a result of their interaction. Virginia Henderson first defined nursing as doing for others what they lack the strength, will, or knowledge to do for themselves and then identified 14 components of care. These components provide a guide to identifying areas in which a person may lack the strength, will, or knowledge to meet personal needs. We will write a custom essay sample on Historical Development of Nursing specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Historical Development of Nursing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Historical Development of Nursing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer They include breathing, eating and drinking, eliminating, moving, sleeping and resting, dressing and undressing appropriately, maintaining body temperature, keeping clean and protecting the skin, avoiding dangers and injury to others, communicating, worshiping, working, playing, and learning. Dorothea E. Orem identified three theories of self-care, self-care deficit, and nursing systems. The ability of the person to meet daily requirements is known as self-care, and carrying out those activities is self-care agency. Parents serve as dependent care agents for their children. The ability to provide self-care is influenced by basic conditioning factors including but not limited to age, gender, and developmental state. Self-care needs are partially determined by the self-care requisites, which are categorized as universal (air, water, food, elimination, activity and rest, solitude and social interaction, hazard prevention, function within social groups), developmental, and health deviation (needs arising from injury or illness and from efforts to treat the injury or illness). The total demands created by the self-care requisites are identified as therapeutic self-care demand. When the therapeutic self-care demand exceeds self-care agency, a self-care deficit exists, and nursing is needed. Based on the needs, the nurse designs nursing systems that are wholly compensatory (the nurse provides all needed care), partly compensatory (the nurse and the patient provide care together), or supportive-educative (the nurse provides needed support and education for the patient to exercise self-care). Dorothy E. Johnson stated that nursing’s area of concern is the behavioral system that consists of seven subsystems. The subsystems are attachment or affiliative, dependency, ingestive, eliminative, sexual, aggressive, and achievement. The behaviors for each of the subsystems occur as a result of the drive, set, choices, and goal of the subsystem. The purpose of the behaviors is to reduce tensions and keep the behavioral system in balance. Ida Jean Orlando described a disciplined nursing process. Her process is initiated by the patient’s behavior. This behavior engenders a reaction in the nurse, described as an automatic perception, thought, or feeling. The nurse shares the reaction with the patient, identifying it as the nurse’s perception, thought, or feeling, and seeking validation of the accuracy of the reaction. Once the nurse and the patient have agreed on the immediate need that led to the patient’s behavior and to the action to be taken by the nurse to meet that need, the nurse carries out a deliberative action. Any action taken by the nurse for reasons other than meeting the patient’s immediate need is an automatic action. Lydia E. Hall believed that persons over the age of 16 who were past the acute stage of illness required a different focus for their care than during the acute stage. She described the circles of care, core, and cure. Activities in the care circle belong solely to nursing and involve bodily care and comfort. Activities in the core circle are shared with all members of the health care team and involve the person and therapeutic use of self. Hall believed the drive to recovery must come from within the person. Activities in the cure circle also are shared with other members of the health care team and may include the patient’s family. The cure circle focuses on the disease and the medical care. Faye G. Abdellah sought to change the focus of care from the disease to the patient and thus proposed patient-centered approaches to care. She identified 21 nursing problems, or areas vital to the growth and functioning of humans that require support from nurses when persons are for some reason limited in carrying out the activities needed to provide such growth. These areas are hygiene and comfort, activity (including exercise, rest, and sleep), safety, body mechanics, oxygen, nutrition, elimination, fluid and electrolyte balance, recognition of physiological responses to disease, regulatory mechanisms, sensory functions, emotions, interrelatedness of emotions and illness, communication, interpersonal relationships, spiritual goals, therapeutic environment, individuality, optimal goals, use of community resources, and role of society. Ernestine Wiedenbach proposed a prescriptive theory that involves the nurse’s central purpose, prescription to fulfill that purpose, and the realities that influence the ability to fulfill the central purpose (the nurse, the patient, the goal, the means, and the framework or environment). Nursing involves the identification of the patient’s need for help, the ministration of help, and validation that the efforts made were indeed helpful. Her principles of helping indicate the nurse should look for patient behaviors that are not consistent with what is expected, should continue helping efforts in spite of encountering difficulties, and should recognize personal limitations and seek help from others as needed. Nursing actions may be reflex or spontaneous and based on sensations, conditioned or automatic and based on perceptions, impulsive and based on assumptions, or deliberate or responsible and based on realization, insight, design, and decision that involves discussion and joint planning with the patient. Joyce Travelbee was concerned with the interpersonal process between the professional nurse and that nurse’s client, whether an individual, family, or community. The functions of the nurse–client, or human-to-human, relationship are to prevent or cope with illness or suffering and to find meaning in illness or suffering. This relationship requires a disciplined, intellectual approach, with the nurse employing a therapeutic use of self. The five phases of the human-to-human relationship are encounter, identities, empathy, sympathy, and rapport. Myra Estrin Levine described adaptation as the process by which conservation is achieved, with the purpose of conservation being integrity, or preservation of the whole of the person. Adaptation is based on past experiences of effective responses (historicity), the use of responses specific to the demands being made (specificity), and more than one level of response (redundancy). Adaptation seeks the best fit between the person and the environment. The principles of conservation deal with conservation of energy, structural integrity, personal integrity, and social integrity of the individual. Imogene M. King presented both a systems-based conceptual framework of personal, interpersonal, and social systems and a theory of goal attainment. The concepts of the theory of goal attainment are interaction, perception, communication, transaction, self, role, stress, growth and development, time, and personal space. The nurse and the client usually meet as strangers. Each brings to this meeting perceptions and judgments about the situation and the other; each acts and then reacts to the other’s action. The reactions lead to interaction, which, when effective, leads to transaction or movement toward mutually agreed-on goals. She emphasizes that both the nurse and the patient bring important knowledge and information to this goal-attainment process. Martha E. Rogers identified the basic science of nursing as the Science of Unitary Human Beings. The human being is a whole, not a collection of parts. She presented the human being and the environment as energy fields that are integral with each other. The human being does not have an energy field but is an energy field. These fields can be identified by their pattern, described as a distinguishing characteristic that is perceived as a single wave. These patterns occur in a pandimensional world. Rogers’s principles are resonancy, or continuous change to higher frequency; helicy, or unpredictable movement toward increasing diversity; and integrality, or the continuous mutual process of the human field and the environmental field. Sister Callista Roy proposed the Roy Adaptation Model. The person or group responds to stimuli from the internal or external environment through control processes or coping mechanisms identified as the regulator and cognator (stabilizer and innovator for the group) subsystems. The regulator processes are essentially automatic, while the cognator processes involve perception, learning, judgment, and emotion. The results of the processing by these coping mechanisms are behaviors in one of four modes. These modes are the physiological–physical mode (oxygenation; nutrition; elimination; activity and rest; protection; senses; fluid, electrolyte, and acid–base balance; and endocrine function for individuals and resource adequacy for groups), self-concept–group identity mode, role function mode, and interdependence mode. These behaviors may be either adaptive (promoting the integrity of the human system) or ineffective (not promoting such integrity). The nurse assesses the behaviors in each of the modes and identifies those adaptive behaviors that need support and those ineffective behaviors that require intervention. For each of these behaviors, the nurse then seeks to identify the associated stimuli. The stimulus most directly associated with the behavior is the focal stimulus; all other stimuli that are verified as influencing the behavior are contextual stimuli. Any stimuli that may be influencing the behavior but that have not been verified as doing so are residual stimuli. Once the stimuli are identified, the nurse, in cooperation with the patient, plans and carries out interventions to alter stimuli and support adaptive behaviors. The effectiveness of the actions taken is evaluated. Betty Neuman developed the Neuman Systems Model. Systems have three environments—the internal, the external, and the created environment. Each system, whether an individual or a group, has several structures. The basic structure or core is where the energy resources reside. This core is protected by lines of resistance that in turn are surrounded by the normal line of defense and finally the flexible line of defense. Each of the structures consists of the five variables of physiological, psychological, sociocultural, developmental, and spiritual characteristics. Each variable is influenced by intrapersonal, interpersonal, and extrapersonal factors. The system seeks a state of equilibrium that may be disrupted by stressors. Stressors, either existing or potential, first encounter the flexible line of defense. If the flexible line of defense cannot counteract the stressor, then the normal line of defense is activated. If the normal line of defense is breached, the stressor enters the system and leads to a reaction, associated with the lines of resistance. This reaction is what is usually termed symptoms. If the lines of resistance allow the stressor to reach the core, depletion of energy resources and death are threatened. In the Neuman Systems Model, there are three levels of prevention. Primary prevention occurs before a stressor enters the system and causes a reaction. Secondary prevention occurs in response to the symptoms, and tertiary prevention seeks to support maintenance of stability and to prevent future occurrences. Kathryn E. Barnard’s focus is on the circumstances that enhance the development of the young child. In her Child Health Assessment Interaction Model, the key components are the child, the caregiver, the environment, and the interactions between child and caregiver. Contributions made by the child include temperament and ability to regulate and by the caregiver physical health, mental health, coping, and level of education. The environment includes both animate and inanimate resources. In assessing interaction, the parent is assessed in relation to sensibility to cues, fostering emotional growth, and fostering cognitive growth. The infant is assessed in relation to clarity of cue given and responsiveness to parent. Josephine E. Paterson and Loretta T. Zderad presented humanistic nursing. Humans are seen as becoming through choices, and health is a personal value of more-being and well-being. Humanistic nursing involves dialogue, community, and phenomenologic nursology. Dialogue occurs through meeting the other, relating with the other, being in presence together, and sharing through call and response. Community is the sense of â€Å"we. † Phenomenologic nursology involves the nurse preparing to know another, having intuitive responses to another, learning about the other scientifically, synthesizing information about the other with information already known, and developing a truth that is both uniquely personal and generally applicable. Madeleine M. Leininger provided a guide to the inclusion of culture as a vital aspect of nursing practice. Her Sunrise Model posits that important dimensions of culture and social structure are technology, religion, philosophy, kinship and other related social factors, cultural values and lifeways, politics, law, economics, and education within the context of language and environment. All of these influence care patterns and expressions that impact the health or well-being of individuals, families, groups, and institutions. The diverse health systems include the folk care systems and the professional care systems that are linked by nursing. To provide culture congruent care, nursing decisions and actions should seek to provide culture care preservation or maintenance, culture care accommodation or negotiation, or culture care repatterning or restructuring. Margaret Newman described health as expanding consciousness. Important concepts are consciousness (the information capacity of the system), pattern (movement, diversity, and rhythm of the whole), pattern recognition (identification within the observer of the whole of another), and transformation (change). Health and disease are seen as reflections of the larger whole rather than as different entities. She proposed (with Sime and Corcoran-Perry) the unitary–transformative paradigm in which human beings are viewed as unitary phenomenon. These phenomenon are identified by pattern, and change is unpredictable, toward diversity, and transformative. Stages of disorganization, or choice points, lead to change, and health is the evolving pattern of the whole as the system moves to higher levels of consciousness. The nurse enters into process with a client and does not serve as a problem solver. Jean Watson described nursing as human science and human care. Her clinical caritas processes include practicing loving-kindness and equanimity within a context of caring consciousness; being authentically present and enabling and sustaining the deep belief system and subjective life world of self and one-being-cared-for; cultivating one’s own spiritual practice and transpersonal self, developing and sustaining helping-trusting in an authentic caring relationship; being present to and supportive of the expression of positive and negative feelings as a connection with the deeper spirit of self and the one-being-cared-for; creatively using self and all ways of knowing as a part of the caring process to engage in artistry of caring-healing practices; engaging in a genuine teaching-learning experience that attends to unity of being and meaning while attempting to stay within other’s frame of reference; creating healing environments at all levels, physical as well as nonphysical, within a subtle environment of energy and consciousness, whereby the potentials of wholeness, beauty, comfort, dignity, and peace are enhanced; assisting with basic needs, with an intentional caring consciousness, to potentiate alignment of mind/body/spirit, wholeness, and unity of being in all aspects of care; tending to both embodied spirit and evolving spiritual emergence; opening and attending to spiritual-mysterious and existential dimensions of one’s own life-death; and soul care for self and the one-being-cared-for. These caritas processes occur within a transpersonal caring relationship and a caring occasion and caring moment as the nurse and other come together and share with each other. The transpersonal caring relationship seeks to provide mental and spiritual growth for both participants while seeking to restore or improve the harmony and unity within the personhood of the other. Rosemarie Rizzo Parse developed the theory of Humanbecoming within the simultaneity paradigm that views human beings as developing meaning through freedom to choose and as more than and different from a sum of parts. Her practice methodology has three dimensions, each with a related process. The first is illuminating meaning, or explicating, or making clear through talking about it, what was, is, and will be. The second is synchronizing rhythms, or dwelling with or being immersed with the process of connecting and separating within the rhythms of the exchange between the human and the universe. The third is mobilizing transcendence, or moving beyond or moving toward what is envisioned, the moment to what has not yet occurred. In the theory of Humanbecoming, the nurse is an interpersonal guide, with the responsibility for decision making (or making of choices) residing in the client. The nurse provides support but not counseling. However, the traditional role of teaching does fall within illuminating meaning, and serving as a change agent is congruent with mobilizing transcendence. Helen C. Erickson, Evelyn M. Tomlin, and Mary Ann P. Swain presented the theory of Modeling and Role-Modeling. Both modeling and role-modeling involve an art and a science. Modeling requires the nurse to seek an understanding of the client’s view of the world. The art of modeling involves the use of empathy in developing this understanding. The science of modeling involves the use of the nurse’s knowledge in analyzing the information collected to create the model. Role-modeling seeks to facilitate health. The art of role-modeling lies in individualizing the facilitations, while the science lies in the use of the nurse’s theoretical knowledge base to plan and implement care. The aims of intervention are to build trust, promote the client’s positive orientation of self, promote the client’s perception of being in control, promote the client’s strengths, and set mutual health-directed goals. The client has self-care knowledge about what his needs are and self-care resources to help meet these needs and takes self-care action to use the resources to meet the needs. In addition, a major motivation for human behavior is the drive for affiliated individuation, or having a personal identity while being connected to others. The individual’s ability to mobilize resources is identified as adaptive potential. Adaptive potential may be identified as adaptive equilibrium (a nonstress state in which resources are utilized appropriately), maladaptive equilibrium (a nonstress state in which resource utilization is placing one or more subsystems in jeopardy), arousal (a stress state in which the client is having difficulty mobilizing resources), or impoverishment (a stress state in which resources are diminished or depleted). Interventions differ according to the adaptive potential. Those in adaptive equilibrium can be encouraged to continue and may require only facilitation of their self-care actions. Those in maladaptive equilibrium present the challenge of seeing no reason to change since they are in equilibrium. Here motivation strategies to seek to change are needed. Those in arousal are best supported by actions that facilitate change and support individuation; these are likely to include teaching, guidance, direction, and other assistance. Those in impoverishment have strong affiliation needs, need their internal strengths promoted, and need to have resources provided. Nola J. Pender developed the Health Promotion Model (revised) with the goal of achieving outcomes of health-promoting behavior. Areas identified to help understand personal choices made in relation to health-promoting behavior include perceived benefits of action, perceived barriers to action, perceived self-efficacy (or ability to carry out the action), activity-related affect, interpersonal influences, situation influences, commitment to a plan of action, and immediate competing demands and preferences. Patricia Benner described expert nursing practice and identified five stages of skill acquisition as novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient, and expert. She discusses a number of concepts in relation to these stages, including agency, assumptions, expectations and set, background meaning, caring, clinical forethought, clinical judgment, clinical knowledge, clinical reasoning, clinical transitions, common meanings, concern, coping, skill acquisition, domains of practice, embodied intelligence, embodied knowledge, emotions, ethical judgment, experience, graded qualitative distinctions, intuition, knowing the patient, maxims, paradigm cases and personal knowledge, reasoning-in-transition, social embeddedness, stress, temporality, thinking-in-action, and unplanned practices. Juliet Corbin and Anselm L. Strauss developed the Chronic Illness Trajectory Framework, in which they describe the course of illness and the actions taken to shape that course. The phases of the framework are pretrajectory, trajectory onset, stable, unstable, acute, crisis, comeback, downward, and dying. A trajectory projection is one’s personal vision of the illness, and a trajectory scheme is the plan of actions to shape the course of the illness, control associated symptoms, and handle disability. Important also are one’s biography or life story and one’s everyday life activities (similar to activities of daily living). Anne Boykin and Savina Schoenhofer present nursing as caring in a grand theory that may be used in combination with other theories. Persons are caring by virtue of being human; are caring, moment to moment; are whole and complete in the moment; and are already complete while growing in completeness. Personhood is the process of living grounded in caring and is enhanced through nurturing relationships. Nursing as a discipline is a being, knowing, living, and valuing response to a social call. As a profession, nursing is based on a social call and uses a body of knowledge to respond to that call. The focus of nursing is nurturing persons living in caring and growing in caring. This nurturing occurs in the nursing situation, or the lived experience shared between the nurse and the nursed, in which personhood is enhanced. The call for nursing is not based on a need or a deficit and thus focuses on helping the other celebrate the fullness of being rather than seeking to fix something. Boykin and Schoenhofer encourage the use of storytelling to make evident the service of nursing. Katharine Kolcaba developed a comfort theory in which she describes comfort, comfort care, comfort measures, and comfort needs as well as health-seeking behavior, institutional integrity, and intervening variables. She speaks of comfort as physical, psychospiritual, environmental, and sociocultural and describes technical comfort measures, coaching for comfort, and comfort food for the soul. Ramona Mercer describes the process of becoming a mother in the four stages of commitment, attachment, and preparation; acquaintance, learning, and physical restoration; moving toward a new normal; and achievement of the maternal identity. The stages occur with the three nested living environments of family and friends, community, and society at large. Afaf Meleis, in her theory of transitions, identifies four types of transitions: developmental, situational, health–illness, and organizational. Properties of the transition experience include awareness, engagement, change and difference, time span, critical points, and events. Personal conditions include meanings, cultural beliefs and attitudes, socioeconomic status, and preparation and knowledge. Community conditions include family support, information available, health care resources, and role models. Process indicators are feeling connected, interacting, location, and being situated and developing confidence and coping. Outcome indicators include mastery and fluid integrative processes. Merle H. Mishel describes uncertainty in illness with the three major themes of antecedents of uncertainty, appraisal of uncertainty, and coping with uncertainty. Antecedents of uncertainty are the stimuli frame, including symptom pattern, event familiarity, and event congruence; cognitive capacity or informational processing ability; and structure providers, such as education, social support, and credible authorities. Appraisal of uncertainty includes both inference (use of past experience to evaluate an event) and illusion (creating beliefs from uncertainty with a positive outlook). Coping with uncertainty includes danger, opportunity, coping, and adaptation. The Reconceptualized Uncertainty in Illness Theory adds self-organization and probabilistic thinking and changes the goal from return to previous level of functioning to growth to a new value system. Each of these models or theories will be applied to clinical practice with the following case study: May Allenski, an 84-year-old White female, had emergency femoral-popliteal bypass surgery two days ago. She has severe peripheral vascular disease, and a clot blocked 90% of the circulation to her right leg one week ago. The grafts were taken from her left leg, so there are long incisions in each leg. She lives in a small town about 75 miles from the medical center. The initial clotting occurred late on Friday night; she did not see a doctor until Monday. The first physician referred her to a vascular specialist, who then referred her to the medical center. Her 90-year-old husband drove her to the medical center on Tuesday. You anticipate she will be discharged to home on the fourth postoperative day, as is standard procedure. She is learning to transfer to and from bed and toilet to wheelchair. Table 2-1 shows examples of application in clinical practice that are not complete but are intended to provide only a partial example for each. Study of these examples can provide ideas or suggestions for use in clinical practice. Readers are encouraged to develop further detail as appropriate to their practice. Historical Development of Nursing Essay Example Historical Development of Nursing Essay Historical Development of Nursing Timeline Create a 700- to 1,050-word timeline paper of the historical development of nursing science, starting with Florence Nightingale and continuing to the present. Format the timeline however you wish, but the word count and assignment requirements must be met. Include the following in your timeline: †¢ Explain the historical development of nursing science by citing specific years, theories, theorists, and events in the history of nursing. Explain the relationship between nursing science and the profession. †¢ Include the influences on nursing science of other disciplines, such as philosophy, religion, education, anthropology, the social sciences, and psychology. Prepare to discuss your timeline with your Learning Team or in class. Format all references consistent with APA guidelines. Copyright  © 2013 Penn Nursing Science, University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing http://www. nursing. upenn. edu/nhhc/Pages/AmericanNursingIntroduct ion. aspx http://www. nursing. penn. edu/nhhc/Welcome%20Page%20Content/American%20Nursing. pdf Nursing Theories. The Base for Professional Nursing Practice, Sixth Edition Chapter 2: Nursing Theory and Clinical Practice ISBN: 9780135135839  Author: Julia B. GeorgeRN, PhD copyright  © 2011  Pearson Education lorence Nightingale believed that the force for healing resides within the human being and that, if the environment is appropriately supportive, humans will seek to heal themselves. Her 13 canons indicate the areas of environment of concern to nursing. These are ventilation and warming, health of houses (pure air, pure water, efficient drainage, cleanliness, and light), petty management (today known as continuity of care), noise, variety, taking food, what food, bed and bedding, light, cleanliness of rooms and walls, personal cleanliness, chattering hopes and advices, and observation of the sick. Hildegard E. Peplau focused on the interpersonal relationship between the nurse and the patient. The three phases of this relationship are orientation, working, and termination. The relationship is initiated by the patient’s felt need and termination occurs when the need is met. Both the nurse and the patient grow as a result of their interaction. Virginia Henderson first defined nursing as doing for others what they lack the strength, will, or knowledge to do for themselves and then identified 14 components of care. These components provide a guide to identifying areas in which a person may lack the strength, will, or knowledge to meet personal needs. We will write a custom essay sample on Historical Development of Nursing specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Historical Development of Nursing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Historical Development of Nursing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer They include breathing, eating and drinking, eliminating, moving, sleeping and resting, dressing and undressing appropriately, maintaining body temperature, keeping clean and protecting the skin, avoiding dangers and injury to others, communicating, worshiping, working, playing, and learning. Dorothea E. Orem identified three theories of self-care, self-care deficit, and nursing systems. The ability of the person to meet daily requirements is known as self-care, and carrying out those activities is self-care agency. Parents serve as dependent care agents for their children. The ability to provide self-care is influenced by basic conditioning factors including but not limited to age, gender, and developmental state. Self-care needs are partially determined by the self-care requisites, which are categorized as universal (air, water, food, elimination, activity and rest, solitude and social interaction, hazard prevention, function within social groups), developmental, and health deviation (needs arising from injury or illness and from efforts to treat the injury or illness). The total demands created by the self-care requisites are identified as therapeutic self-care demand. When the therapeutic self-care demand exceeds self-care agency, a self-care deficit exists, and nursing is needed. Based on the needs, the nurse designs nursing systems that are wholly compensatory (the nurse provides all needed care), partly compensatory (the nurse and the patient provide care together), or supportive-educative (the nurse provides needed support and education for the patient to exercise self-care). Dorothy E. Johnson stated that nursing’s area of concern is the behavioral system that consists of seven subsystems. The subsystems are attachment or affiliative, dependency, ingestive, eliminative, sexual, aggressive, and achievement. The behaviors for each of the subsystems occur as a result of the drive, set, choices, and goal of the subsystem. The purpose of the behaviors is to reduce tensions and keep the behavioral system in balance. Ida Jean Orlando described a disciplined nursing process. Her process is initiated by the patient’s behavior. This behavior engenders a reaction in the nurse, described as an automatic perception, thought, or feeling. The nurse shares the reaction with the patient, identifying it as the nurse’s perception, thought, or feeling, and seeking validation of the accuracy of the reaction. Once the nurse and the patient have agreed on the immediate need that led to the patient’s behavior and to the action to be taken by the nurse to meet that need, the nurse carries out a deliberative action. Any action taken by the nurse for reasons other than meeting the patient’s immediate need is an automatic action. Lydia E. Hall believed that persons over the age of 16 who were past the acute stage of illness required a different focus for their care than during the acute stage. She described the circles of care, core, and cure. Activities in the care circle belong solely to nursing and involve bodily care and comfort. Activities in the core circle are shared with all members of the health care team and involve the person and therapeutic use of self. Hall believed the drive to recovery must come from within the person. Activities in the cure circle also are shared with other members of the health care team and may include the patient’s family. The cure circle focuses on the disease and the medical care. Faye G. Abdellah sought to change the focus of care from the disease to the patient and thus proposed patient-centered approaches to care. She identified 21 nursing problems, or areas vital to the growth and functioning of humans that require support from nurses when persons are for some reason limited in carrying out the activities needed to provide such growth. These areas are hygiene and comfort, activity (including exercise, rest, and sleep), safety, body mechanics, oxygen, nutrition, elimination, fluid and electrolyte balance, recognition of physiological responses to disease, regulatory mechanisms, sensory functions, emotions, interrelatedness of emotions and illness, communication, interpersonal relationships, spiritual goals, therapeutic environment, individuality, optimal goals, use of community resources, and role of society. Ernestine Wiedenbach proposed a prescriptive theory that involves the nurse’s central purpose, prescription to fulfill that purpose, and the realities that influence the ability to fulfill the central purpose (the nurse, the patient, the goal, the means, and the framework or environment). Nursing involves the identification of the patient’s need for help, the ministration of help, and validation that the efforts made were indeed helpful. Her principles of helping indicate the nurse should look for patient behaviors that are not consistent with what is expected, should continue helping efforts in spite of encountering difficulties, and should recognize personal limitations and seek help from others as needed. Nursing actions may be reflex or spontaneous and based on sensations, conditioned or automatic and based on perceptions, impulsive and based on assumptions, or deliberate or responsible and based on realization, insight, design, and decision that involves discussion and joint planning with the patient. Joyce Travelbee was concerned with the interpersonal process between the professional nurse and that nurse’s client, whether an individual, family, or community. The functions of the nurse–client, or human-to-human, relationship are to prevent or cope with illness or suffering and to find meaning in illness or suffering. This relationship requires a disciplined, intellectual approach, with the nurse employing a therapeutic use of self. The five phases of the human-to-human relationship are encounter, identities, empathy, sympathy, and rapport. Myra Estrin Levine described adaptation as the process by which conservation is achieved, with the purpose of conservation being integrity, or preservation of the whole of the person. Adaptation is based on past experiences of effective responses (historicity), the use of responses specific to the demands being made (specificity), and more than one level of response (redundancy). Adaptation seeks the best fit between the person and the environment. The principles of conservation deal with conservation of energy, structural integrity, personal integrity, and social integrity of the individual. Imogene M. King presented both a systems-based conceptual framework of personal, interpersonal, and social systems and a theory of goal attainment. The concepts of the theory of goal attainment are interaction, perception, communication, transaction, self, role, stress, growth and development, time, and personal space. The nurse and the client usually meet as strangers. Each brings to this meeting perceptions and judgments about the situation and the other; each acts and then reacts to the other’s action. The reactions lead to interaction, which, when effective, leads to transaction or movement toward mutually agreed-on goals. She emphasizes that both the nurse and the patient bring important knowledge and information to this goal-attainment process. Martha E. Rogers identified the basic science of nursing as the Science of Unitary Human Beings. The human being is a whole, not a collection of parts. She presented the human being and the environment as energy fields that are integral with each other. The human being does not have an energy field but is an energy field. These fields can be identified by their pattern, described as a distinguishing characteristic that is perceived as a single wave. These patterns occur in a pandimensional world. Rogers’s principles are resonancy, or continuous change to higher frequency; helicy, or unpredictable movement toward increasing diversity; and integrality, or the continuous mutual process of the human field and the environmental field. Sister Callista Roy proposed the Roy Adaptation Model. The person or group responds to stimuli from the internal or external environment through control processes or coping mechanisms identified as the regulator and cognator (stabilizer and innovator for the group) subsystems. The regulator processes are essentially automatic, while the cognator processes involve perception, learning, judgment, and emotion. The results of the processing by these coping mechanisms are behaviors in one of four modes. These modes are the physiological–physical mode (oxygenation; nutrition; elimination; activity and rest; protection; senses; fluid, electrolyte, and acid–base balance; and endocrine function for individuals and resource adequacy for groups), self-concept–group identity mode, role function mode, and interdependence mode. These behaviors may be either adaptive (promoting the integrity of the human system) or ineffective (not promoting such integrity). The nurse assesses the behaviors in each of the modes and identifies those adaptive behaviors that need support and those ineffective behaviors that require intervention. For each of these behaviors, the nurse then seeks to identify the associated stimuli. The stimulus most directly associated with the behavior is the focal stimulus; all other stimuli that are verified as influencing the behavior are contextual stimuli. Any stimuli that may be influencing the behavior but that have not been verified as doing so are residual stimuli. Once the stimuli are identified, the nurse, in cooperation with the patient, plans and carries out interventions to alter stimuli and support adaptive behaviors. The effectiveness of the actions taken is evaluated. Betty Neuman developed the Neuman Systems Model. Systems have three environments—the internal, the external, and the created environment. Each system, whether an individual or a group, has several structures. The basic structure or core is where the energy resources reside. This core is protected by lines of resistance that in turn are surrounded by the normal line of defense and finally the flexible line of defense. Each of the structures consists of the five variables of physiological, psychological, sociocultural, developmental, and spiritual characteristics. Each variable is influenced by intrapersonal, interpersonal, and extrapersonal factors. The system seeks a state of equilibrium that may be disrupted by stressors. Stressors, either existing or potential, first encounter the flexible line of defense. If the flexible line of defense cannot counteract the stressor, then the normal line of defense is activated. If the normal line of defense is breached, the stressor enters the system and leads to a reaction, associated with the lines of resistance. This reaction is what is usually termed symptoms. If the lines of resistance allow the stressor to reach the core, depletion of energy resources and death are threatened. In the Neuman Systems Model, there are three levels of prevention. Primary prevention occurs before a stressor enters the system and causes a reaction. Secondary prevention occurs in response to the symptoms, and tertiary prevention seeks to support maintenance of stability and to prevent future occurrences. Kathryn E. Barnard’s focus is on the circumstances that enhance the development of the young child. In her Child Health Assessment Interaction Model, the key components are the child, the caregiver, the environment, and the interactions between child and caregiver. Contributions made by the child include temperament and ability to regulate and by the caregiver physical health, mental health, coping, and level of education. The environment includes both animate and inanimate resources. In assessing interaction, the parent is assessed in relation to sensibility to cues, fostering emotional growth, and fostering cognitive growth. The infant is assessed in relation to clarity of cue given and responsiveness to parent. Josephine E. Paterson and Loretta T. Zderad presented humanistic nursing. Humans are seen as becoming through choices, and health is a personal value of more-being and well-being. Humanistic nursing involves dialogue, community, and phenomenologic nursology. Dialogue occurs through meeting the other, relating with the other, being in presence together, and sharing through call and response. Community is the sense of â€Å"we. † Phenomenologic nursology involves the nurse preparing to know another, having intuitive responses to another, learning about the other scientifically, synthesizing information about the other with information already known, and developing a truth that is both uniquely personal and generally applicable. Madeleine M. Leininger provided a guide to the inclusion of culture as a vital aspect of nursing practice. Her Sunrise Model posits that important dimensions of culture and social structure are technology, religion, philosophy, kinship and other related social factors, cultural values and lifeways, politics, law, economics, and education within the context of language and environment. All of these influence care patterns and expressions that impact the health or well-being of individuals, families, groups, and institutions. The diverse health systems include the folk care systems and the professional care systems that are linked by nursing. To provide culture congruent care, nursing decisions and actions should seek to provide culture care preservation or maintenance, culture care accommodation or negotiation, or culture care repatterning or restructuring. Margaret Newman described health as expanding consciousness. Important concepts are consciousness (the information capacity of the system), pattern (movement, diversity, and rhythm of the whole), pattern recognition (identification within the observer of the whole of another), and transformation (change). Health and disease are seen as reflections of the larger whole rather than as different entities. She proposed (with Sime and Corcoran-Perry) the unitary–transformative paradigm in which human beings are viewed as unitary phenomenon. These phenomenon are identified by pattern, and change is unpredictable, toward diversity, and transformative. Stages of disorganization, or choice points, lead to change, and health is the evolving pattern of the whole as the system moves to higher levels of consciousness. The nurse enters into process with a client and does not serve as a problem solver. Jean Watson described nursing as human science and human care. Her clinical caritas processes include practicing loving-kindness and equanimity within a context of caring consciousness; being authentically present and enabling and sustaining the deep belief system and subjective life world of self and one-being-cared-for; cultivating one’s own spiritual practice and transpersonal self, developing and sustaining helping-trusting in an authentic caring relationship; being present to and supportive of the expression of positive and negative feelings as a connection with the deeper spirit of self and the one-being-cared-for; creatively using self and all ways of knowing as a part of the caring process to engage in artistry of caring-healing practices; engaging in a genuine teaching-learning experience that attends to unity of being and meaning while attempting to stay within other’s frame of reference; creating healing environments at all levels, physical as well as nonphysical, within a subtle environment of energy and consciousness, whereby the potentials of wholeness, beauty, comfort, dignity, and peace are enhanced; assisting with basic needs, with an intentional caring consciousness, to potentiate alignment of mind/body/spirit, wholeness, and unity of being in all aspects of care; tending to both embodied spirit and evolving spiritual emergence; opening and attending to spiritual-mysterious and existential dimensions of one’s own life-death; and soul care for self and the one-being-cared-for. These caritas processes occur within a transpersonal caring relationship and a caring occasion and caring moment as the nurse and other come together and share with each other. The transpersonal caring relationship seeks to provide mental and spiritual growth for both participants while seeking to restore or improve the harmony and unity within the personhood of the other. Rosemarie Rizzo Parse developed the theory of Humanbecoming within the simultaneity paradigm that views human beings as developing meaning through freedom to choose and as more than and different from a sum of parts. Her practice methodology has three dimensions, each with a related process. The first is illuminating meaning, or explicating, or making clear through talking about it, what was, is, and will be. The second is synchronizing rhythms, or dwelling with or being immersed with the process of connecting and separating within the rhythms of the exchange between the human and the universe. The third is mobilizing transcendence, or moving beyond or moving toward what is envisioned, the moment to what has not yet occurred. In the theory of Humanbecoming, the nurse is an interpersonal guide, with the responsibility for decision making (or making of choices) residing in the client. The nurse provides support but not counseling. However, the traditional role of teaching does fall within illuminating meaning, and serving as a change agent is congruent with mobilizing transcendence. Helen C. Erickson, Evelyn M. Tomlin, and Mary Ann P. Swain presented the theory of Modeling and Role-Modeling. Both modeling and role-modeling involve an art and a science. Modeling requires the nurse to seek an understanding of the client’s view of the world. The art of modeling involves the use of empathy in developing this understanding. The science of modeling involves the use of the nurse’s knowledge in analyzing the information collected to create the model. Role-modeling seeks to facilitate health. The art of role-modeling lies in individualizing the facilitations, while the science lies in the use of the nurse’s theoretical knowledge base to plan and implement care. The aims of intervention are to build trust, promote the client’s positive orientation of self, promote the client’s perception of being in control, promote the client’s strengths, and set mutual health-directed goals. The client has self-care knowledge about what his needs are and self-care resources to help meet these needs and takes self-care action to use the resources to meet the needs. In addition, a major motivation for human behavior is the drive for affiliated individuation, or having a personal identity while being connected to others. The individual’s ability to mobilize resources is identified as adaptive potential. Adaptive potential may be identified as adaptive equilibrium (a nonstress state in which resources are utilized appropriately), maladaptive equilibrium (a nonstress state in which resource utilization is placing one or more subsystems in jeopardy), arousal (a stress state in which the client is having difficulty mobilizing resources), or impoverishment (a stress state in which resources are diminished or depleted). Interventions differ according to the adaptive potential. Those in adaptive equilibrium can be encouraged to continue and may require only facilitation of their self-care actions. Those in maladaptive equilibrium present the challenge of seeing no reason to change since they are in equilibrium. Here motivation strategies to seek to change are needed. Those in arousal are best supported by actions that facilitate change and support individuation; these are likely to include teaching, guidance, direction, and other assistance. Those in impoverishment have strong affiliation needs, need their internal strengths promoted, and need to have resources provided. Nola J. Pender developed the Health Promotion Model (revised) with the goal of achieving outcomes of health-promoting behavior. Areas identified to help understand personal choices made in relation to health-promoting behavior include perceived benefits of action, perceived barriers to action, perceived self-efficacy (or ability to carry out the action), activity-related affect, interpersonal influences, situation influences, commitment to a plan of action, and immediate competing demands and preferences. Patricia Benner described expert nursing practice and identified five stages of skill acquisition as novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient, and expert. She discusses a number of concepts in relation to these stages, including agency, assumptions, expectations and set, background meaning, caring, clinical forethought, clinical judgment, clinical knowledge, clinical reasoning, clinical transitions, common meanings, concern, coping, skill acquisition, domains of practice, embodied intelligence, embodied knowledge, emotions, ethical judgment, experience, graded qualitative distinctions, intuition, knowing the patient, maxims, paradigm cases and personal knowledge, reasoning-in-transition, social embeddedness, stress, temporality, thinking-in-action, and unplanned practices. Juliet Corbin and Anselm L. Strauss developed the Chronic Illness Trajectory Framework, in which they describe the course of illness and the actions taken to shape that course. The phases of the framework are pretrajectory, trajectory onset, stable, unstable, acute, crisis, comeback, downward, and dying. A trajectory projection is one’s personal vision of the illness, and a trajectory scheme is the plan of actions to shape the course of the illness, control associated symptoms, and handle disability. Important also are one’s biography or life story and one’s everyday life activities (similar to activities of daily living). Anne Boykin and Savina Schoenhofer present nursing as caring in a grand theory that may be used in combination with other theories. Persons are caring by virtue of being human; are caring, moment to moment; are whole and complete in the moment; and are already complete while growing in completeness. Personhood is the process of living grounded in caring and is enhanced through nurturing relationships. Nursing as a discipline is a being, knowing, living, and valuing response to a social call. As a profession, nursing is based on a social call and uses a body of knowledge to respond to that call. The focus of nursing is nurturing persons living in caring and growing in caring. This nurturing occurs in the nursing situation, or the lived experience shared between the nurse and the nursed, in which personhood is enhanced. The call for nursing is not based on a need or a deficit and thus focuses on helping the other celebrate the fullness of being rather than seeking to fix something. Boykin and Schoenhofer encourage the use of storytelling to make evident the service of nursing. Katharine Kolcaba developed a comfort theory in which she describes comfort, comfort care, comfort measures, and comfort needs as well as health-seeking behavior, institutional integrity, and intervening variables. She speaks of comfort as physical, psychospiritual, environmental, and sociocultural and describes technical comfort measures, coaching for comfort, and comfort food for the soul. Ramona Mercer describes the process of becoming a mother in the four stages of commitment, attachment, and preparation; acquaintance, learning, and physical restoration; moving toward a new normal; and achievement of the maternal identity. The stages occur with the three nested living environments of family and friends, community, and society at large. Afaf Meleis, in her theory of transitions, identifies four types of transitions: developmental, situational, health–illness, and organizational. Properties of the transition experience include awareness, engagement, change and difference, time span, critical points, and events. Personal conditions include meanings, cultural beliefs and attitudes, socioeconomic status, and preparation and knowledge. Community conditions include family support, information available, health care resources, and role models. Process indicators are feeling connected, interacting, location, and being situated and developing confidence and coping. Outcome indicators include mastery and fluid integrative processes. Merle H. Mishel describes uncertainty in illness with the three major themes of antecedents of uncertainty, appraisal of uncertainty, and coping with uncertainty. Antecedents of uncertainty are the stimuli frame, including symptom pattern, event familiarity, and event congruence; cognitive capacity or informational processing ability; and structure providers, such as education, social support, and credible authorities. Appraisal of uncertainty includes both inference (use of past experience to evaluate an event) and illusion (creating beliefs from uncertainty with a positive outlook). Coping with uncertainty includes danger, opportunity, coping, and adaptation. The Reconceptualized Uncertainty in Illness Theory adds self-organization and probabilistic thinking and changes the goal from return to previous level of functioning to growth to a new value system. Each of these models or theories will be applied to clinical practice with the following case study: May Allenski, an 84-year-old White female, had emergency femoral-popliteal bypass surgery two days ago. She has severe peripheral vascular disease, and a clot blocked 90% of the circulation to her right leg one week ago. The grafts were taken from her left leg, so there are long incisions in each leg. She lives in a small town about 75 miles from the medical center. The initial clotting occurred late on Friday night; she did not see a doctor until Monday. The first physician referred her to a vascular specialist, who then referred her to the medical center. Her 90-year-old husband drove her to the medical center on Tuesday. You anticipate she will be discharged to home on the fourth postoperative day, as is standard procedure. She is learning to transfer to and from bed and toilet to wheelchair. Table 2-1 shows examples of application in clinical practice that are not complete but are intended to provide only a partial example for each. Study of these examples can provide ideas or suggestions for use in clinical practice. Readers are encouraged to develop further detail as appropriate to their practice.

Is the Gulf War Syndrome Real essays

Is the Gulf War Syndrome Real essays On August 2, 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. The United States government acted very quickly. Ships were dispatched to the Persian Gulf, and oil prices shot up as and oil embargo was placed against Iraq. The U.S. government told us that Saddam Hussein was poised to invade the neighboring countries, including Saudi Arabia, and the worlds oil supply was threatened. George Bush launched operation "Desert Shield" in which a coalition of many nation's armies gathered in the deserts of Saudi Arabia bordering Iraq As the war began, the coalition of national armies assembled in Saudi Arabia took a few SCUD missile shots fired from Iraq. When the troops started moving in, Sadams army turned and tried to get out of Kuwait. The Iraqi "Republican Guard" stayed safely back, far from the fighting. Several hundred U.S. troops died in the brief battle, and ten's of thousands of Iraqis died. Many, if not most, of the U.S. deaths were the result of At this point, George Bush decided to bring the troops home. UN weapons inspectors converged on Iraq and the coalition armies dispersed. Perhaps the most hyped war in history was now over. It was almost certainly the war most orchestrated for the media. All the troops had been drilled for months in preparation for a tremendous battle and possibly chemical and biological weapons. Suddenly it was over. They were sent home and returned to their normal everyday lives. Memories of the threat of chemical and Years pass before rumors begin to surface, a veteran suddenly died for no known cause there was a veteran who developed an enormous tumor and there was a veteran who's new child is severely malformed. The threat of chemical and biological weapons returns to everyones memory. People start thinking that perhaps this is the cause of all The threat seemed very real. If it could be demonstrated that Gulf War veterans are suffering from the effects o...

Literature - A Mirror Of Society Essays - Romanticism, Free Essays

Literature - A Mirror Of Society Essays - Romanticism, Free Essays Literature - a Mirror of Society The literature of a country is affected and influenced by how the people of that country live. This paper will prove that The French Revolution greatly influenced 19th Century French Romanticism. First, the cultural values of the revolution will be identified. Then, the different aspects of Romanticism will be presented. The cultural values of The French Revolution and Romanticism will then be linked. Finally, literary examples will be shown to support this connection between the two movements. Before the Revolution, the citizens of France lived in a strict, confined society with no freedom to express their feelings. Government had imposed strong, unfair laws on the common people (Compton?s Interactive Encyclopedia ?French Revolution?). They wanted a voice in a stable government with a strong economy (Johnson 105) and a strong sense of individuality and independence within the people. (Moss and Wilson 180) Eighteenth- century literature was much like the society in which it was produced, restrained. Society was divided into privileged and unprivileged classes, (Leinward 452) with Eighteenth- century writers focusing on the lives of the upper class. (Thompson 857) These writers followed ?formal rules?(Thorlby 282), and based their works on scientific observations and logic (Thompson 895). The Revolution gave the common people and writers more freedom to express feelings and stimulated them to use reason. According to Thompson, The Revolution ?had a major impact on Nineteenth- Century European Life.? (895) It sent a strong wave of emotion and revival throughout France (Peyre 59). This lead to new laws and ezdards for the citizens, including newer, less imposing literary ezdards. Romanticism marked a profound change in both literature and thought. Romanticism, according to Webster?s Dictionary, is defined as ?a literary movement (as in early 19th century Europe) marked especially by an emphasis on the imagination and emotions and by the use of autobiographical material.? Although this may be true, there is no single commonly accepted definition of Romanticism, but it has some features upon which there is general agreement. First, it emphasized upon human reason, feeling, emotion, and expression (Compton?s Interactive Encyclopedia, ?Romanticism?) while emphasizing the love of nature, beauty, and liberty. (Leinward 528-529) Thompson defines Romanticism as ? a major literary and cultural movement? that was inspired by the imaginations, inner feelings, and emotions of the Romantics. (895) If one term can be used to describe the forces that have shaped the modern world, it is Romanticism. (Peyre, 2) Romanticism has had such a profound effect on the world since the late 18th century that one author has called it ?the profoundest cultural transformation in human history since the invention of the city.? (Compton?s Encyclopedia, ?Romanticism?) Harvey and Heseltine state that ?The outezding characteristic of 18th-century French literature had been attached to reason.... About the turn of the century.... literature became a matter of senses and emotions.? (633) They also say that the movement of Romanticism ?gave practical expression to the new spirit...? because it recognized that the bounds on literature were ?too rigid?. (634) There are many direct relations how the French Revolution influenced the French Romanticism that followed it in the Nineteenth- century. The French Revolution had a major impact on the timeline and progression of Romanticism. Vinaver states that ?Neither a revolt or a reaction, Romanticism was a revolutionary fulfillment... And this in turn explains why the European event known as the French Revolution is at once the climax [of Romanticism]...It?s [French Revolution} date, 1789, conveniently divides the Pre- Romanticism [era] from the full flowering of the new culture.? (6) Romanticism starts in about 1774, but does not take off until the last decade of the 18th- century, the same time as the Revolution. The French Revolution provided for many of the problems and basis for many Romantic literary works. First of all, the political change brought by the Revolution, along with the intellectual reverberations brought upon Romanticism. (Harvey and Heseltine 634) Also, Thompson states that ? [Romanticism was] shaped by the ideals of the French Revolution.? (895) Finally, Vinaver declares that the Revolution served as ?a great source of the problems and tendencies of Romantic proper.? (6) The Revolution also inspired many writers to write romantically. Peyre points this out when

Blog Image Context How To Choose Relevant Blog Images

Blog Image Context How To Choose Relevant Blog Images It was mid-autumn, and the air was getting colder. I was walking with a friend down the street, heading to that evening’s symphony performance. As we passed by the county jail on the opposite side of the street, I stopped. I could not believe my eyes. â€Å"Look at that!† I said to my friend. I pointed to the south entrance of the jail building. Now I know that it is commonplace to see photographers with their clients out and about, shooting photos in alleys, the middle of the street, parks, and especially our state capitol grounds library which has soaring two-story Ionic columns and is about the only place around here that you can get that kind of architectural background. But I admit I was surprised to see a photographer out shooting a very-pregnant woman in a tube top on the steps of the county jail. â€Å"What are they doing?† my friend asked. â€Å"I imagine she is having some pregnancy photos taken. You know, the ones that show a baby bump.† â€Å"But why in front of the jail?† â€Å"I assume they want the Art Deco architecture in the background,† I said, hoping it wasn’t because the baby’s father was inside the jail or that she was establishing some horrific self-fulfilling prophecy of where her child would end up. â€Å"I’m not sure the subtlety of the Art Deco elements is really worth it if you have to use the jail as the background.† Our discussion continued as we walked to the concert, ranging from how cold it would be to wear a tube top on that chilly evening to the proclivity for Art Deco to pop up in North Dakota architecture. But I’ve thought about that incident a lot since then, weighing the photographer’s decision to go for an interesting background for her photo and choosing to ignore the context that background provided. Not everyone would know the photo was in front of the jail, but many would. Every image carries, and is in need of, context. This is important when it comes to choosing powerful images for your blog posts. Every Image Needs Context Benign images- stock photos at their worst- carry very little context beyond that of you grabbing a photo for your blog post because you know it’s a best practice to have one. The problem is that even that seemingly innocuous context can work against your great blog post, suggesting that the copy that goes along with this plain vanilla image is just as unexciting. Every image needs context and has its own context, and all of this can work for or against your blog post and the likelihood that someone will read it. 1. A picture is worth a 1,000 words. Any words. A picture is worth a thousand words. But which thousand? On its own, a photo assumes the context the viewer is most comfortable with. Rare is the image that can’t be interpreted differently depending on what the viewer brings to it. One viewer sees complexity while standing before a Pollock painting, and another sees the handiwork of a kindergartner gone mad. That same painting evokes different reactions, too, depending on whether it is hanging in an art gallery or on the wall of an elementary school. A few weeks after the jail photo shoot, I met a friend for coffee. Out of curiosity, I asked her what she would assume if she saw the county jail in the background of baby bump-type photo. â€Å"I’d assume the father of the baby was in jail.† â€Å"Really?† Her reaction surprised me, but maybe she was correct. My assumption had been that the Art Deco elements were the goal, but then again, my major was in art and that’s how I see everything. Pollock’s painting will always be hanging in a gallery for me. The context of your  images helps define the content in which they  appear.Consider your audience. Consider your blog. The thousand words that your image contributes to your post might not be the thousand you were aiming for if you don’t consider who is reading and the blog it is being read on. Tip: In this day and age where it seems as if everyone is looking to be offended, always review the images you select for your blog posts. While you can’t please everyone (and you don’t want to, because that leads to bland, flavorless content), get a set of fresh eyes on the imagery and ask them what they think when they see it with your blog post’s headline and after reading the blog. 2. The words you put with an image changes its impact. Moving beyond the thousand words that your image brings with it, you can include words with images to change its impact. This works best with flexible or peripheral images, those that are illustrating an abstract concept or scenario that could be used lots of ways. These are powerful images because they evoke reader curiosity (which we’ll talk about in a bit). However, they also have to be framed into proper context or confusion arises. For example, imagine an image of a child, head down at a school desk. What does that image mean? If your headline or caption reads: â€Å"Almost half of children don’t eat breakfast before school†... ...your interpretation of that image would be different than if that same text read: â€Å"How to blame your dog for eating your homework, and other productivity hacks†. The same image can mean very different things. The words you use with an image puts it into context so that you don’t have to wonder if the baby’s father was in jail or if the mother loved Art Deco architecture. Recommended Reading:  How To Design The Best Blog Graphics With Free Tools And Design Theory Admittedly, when searching for stock images, we only have keywords to go on, and it’s tough to find images outside of the typical realm of our search. A search on â€Å"productivity† will turn up boring images of computers, notepads, office scenes, and so on. You’ll miss out on those peripheral images that can mean different things in different settings unless you get really good at searching on abstract words for big ideas (which we’ll talk about in a bit). Tip: Use captions with images, and consider captions that do more than indicate where you got the image. Pose a question as a caption, one that the image hints at to answer. Or, use highlighted text or pull quotes in the body of your blog post that frame your images properly. People who are skimming content will see images, headings, and pull quotes. If they are all in contextual sync, the better for you. 3. Images pulled out of context take on new context. Several years ago, I was reading a story online about a man who had been arrested for abusing children after quite a manhunt. The story had only one photo, a small headshot of the reporter who wrote the story. It was the newspaper’s practice to include the headshot of the author. The headshot was a few paragraphs down, embedded in the text of the story, on the right. The problem was that there was no other photo for the story. As this story was shared on social media, the bold headline that told of a man who had committed a horrific crime against children was associated with an image of the reporter. By the next day, the headshot was pulled from the article, so this unfortunate realization must have occurred to the newspaper, too, but I’d already seen the article shared on social media with the grinning reporter next to the headline, insinuating he was the criminal. The first rule would be that you should always have a featured image for every blog post so that your headshot or a random ad doesn’t become the image on social media. But there’s more to it than that. A clever or innocuous image that relies on the body copy of a blog post may seem fine, but when it gets shared on social media, all that people may have to go by is the headline and the image. Is the right context still there? More than ever, headline clarity matters. But so does headline-image match. Look at your blog post’s featured image, the one that you (and others) will be seeing when it is shared on social media. Is the context all wrong? Is the message not what you expected? Tip: If need be, incorporate words into your graphic itself (using Canva.com perhaps) so that wherever the image travels, the context does, too. This is especially helpful if your blog post topic is controversial or evokes strong reactions. Choosing Powerful Images That Work It isn’t easy choosing an image to go with a blog post, matching image with message. Most of the time is devoted to the actual blog post, and it’s pretty common to toss an image in as an afterthought just before you publish. The image, however, is doing some serious work (such as helping your blog post get read on already image-saturated social networks), so you should give it serious consideration. Recommended Reading:  How To Make The Best Blog Graphics (For Non-Designers) I came up with a few ways to approach making a decision about images you will use with your blog posts. Whether you use all or some from this list is up to you. 1. Your image must stand out. Getting your image to stand out isn’t easy. Every social network is overrun with images. The methods you’ll use to get your image to stand out are, quite simply: Color Startling image Using humor. Humor is probably the easiest way to go when it comes to creating a startling image that stands out, but when everyone does it...no one does it well after a while. This is particularly the case with memes. I know that a lot of blog posts recommend using memes and other pop-culture images, but I suggest proceeding with caution in how you choose those types of images. We’ve all seen the Boromir â€Å"One does not simply†¦Ã¢â‚¬  meme to death, or the Dos Equis Most Interesting Man In The World meme. Neither are particularly funny at this point, and are almost completely ignorable. In other words, they are no longer a startling image because they became overused. Humor startles when it’s fresh and stinks when it’s stale. Shake up assumptions. Startling images are hard to come by, at this point, and completely subjective. However, you can use an image out of typical context and make a strong point for your blog post that is completely within your context. An example is an image I found for a post Garrett wrote several years ago. Despite the age of the post, that image still comes to mind even now. In his post, he introduced the concept of content marketing to readers, and discussed how it was different from traditional marketing forms. While looking for an image to illustrate the post, I considered the usual suspects: stock photos of computers, people, pens on notebooks, guy holding a loudspeaker- you know the kind of generic images I’m talking about. And then I found this: The color (or the lack thereof) is striking, but the image itself is also startling. And the image, in conjunction with the title (â€Å"What Is Content Marketing?†), is startling, too. It inspires curiosity that could get someone to read your blog post, because what would a post-apocalyptic dystopia have to do with content marketing? When I stumbled across the image in the stock photo gallery, I was immediately drawn to it, and it suddenly occurred to me that it perfectly illustrated the problem that content marketing solved. In the wasteland of marketing, there had to be a better solution. I captioned the image, â€Å"Traditional marketing has desensitized our audience and made them tune out our message. What now?† and used it to tap into the initial problem that filled the introductory paragraphs of the blog post (to which content marketing was the eventual solution, of course). Another example is this post, a blog post about capturing ideas. Avoiding the usual imagery of a lightbulb, post-it notes, or someone with question marks above their head, I went with goldfish in a bowl that had striking orange-blue (complementary/opposite) colors. An example of blog image context with an unusual, interesting visual. Tip: The best image is the one that makes you ask a different question about your blog post. Instead of merely illustrating the blog post’s obvious concepts or generic associations, try finding an image that illustrates an abstract concept in a surprising way. 2. Your image should illustrate the idea. Not every post will have a post-apocalyptic dystopian photo to go with it (nor should it), but you should always try to match your graphics up to the big idea in your post. What I mean is that your post is about something bigger than a computer keyboard or a jar of pens or whatever other generic stock photo image you so often see on blog posts. Boring imagery often illustrates objects that are related to the topic instead of the higher concepts. Sure, a computer is related to content marketing, but who cares? This is tricky, particularly if you are pressed for time and know that you need to have an image with every blog post so that it fares well on social media. It takes serious time to find or create images that perform this level of illustration. One of my favorite illustrations is the one Ashton did  for a blog post I wrote about creating content for fragmented audiences. When Ashton finished the illustration and sent it to me for review, I absolutely loved it. She illustrated the big idea perfectly, showing two forms of fragmentation (generational and device use) in one simple image. The image hit on concrete points in the post as well as showed, at a glance, the challenge a fragmented audience presented to content marketers. The post-apocalyptic dystopia image from #1 fits this criteria, too, by addressing the big idea behind the problem which requires the solution outlined in the blog post. Any image is better than none (mostly), but part of your editorial planning should be about deciphering the big idea in your post and finding or creating imagery that illustrates that instead of peripheral objects or actions that don’t mean anything. Tip: When you finish writing your blog post, sum it up in one sentence for yourself. Find the big idea, and then find an image to illustrate that specific idea instead of finding an image to illustrate your blog post in general. 3. Your image could evoke curiosity. As long as your image isn’t fighting the proper context (i.e. suggesting the opposite of what your blog post is about), it could function successfully even if it is vague (sort of like the examples in #1). Let’s take a look at an old blog post of mine from several years ago. The blog post is about how the people you follow on social media can actually change you and how you view and react to things. When I set about trying to find an image that would go with the post, I wanted to avoid social media logos, stock photo people, or those creepy white stock photo balloon stick figures. But this was a tough topic to find an image for. Should I find something that illustrated the concept of following? Of social media? Of change? These were abstract ideas, which are hard to find images for. I decided to focus on the idea of â€Å"view†, and I ended up using this image: It was visually strong with its graphic circles and bold red element, fulfilling #1. It’s a photo of camera filters, suggesting the idea of how the people we follow on social media filter our understanding and view. Now, in hindsight, I’d have gone back into the post to rework the copy a bit to highlight this concept, freely using the camera/lense/viewfinder/filter analogy so that it would make better sense to the reader. That would have made it work better. Tip: Write your post. And then, if you find a fantastic image that evokes curiosity, go back and edit your post so it fits. Sometimes the image can inspire the copy, and that’s perfectly fine. How Will You Explore Blog Image Context? In a nutshell, this post is about understanding how context can affect a reader’s interpretation of an image, and what you can do to frame that context. And then, it’s about playing around a bit with context, bending those rules as far as you can so that you choose blog post images that really get attention and get readers to read. Recommended Reading: We’ve written a lot of posts to help you with both choosing and creating images for your blog content. Are You Sure You’re Using Copyright Free Images For Your Blog? Should You Use Stock Or Free Images For Blog Posts? Color Psychology In Content Marketing: The Ultimate Color Guide

Art of The Huichol - Yarn Paintings Research Paper

Art of The Huichol - Yarn Paintings - Research Paper Example To the rest of the world they are known as huicol but in reality they are called huicol (pronounced wee-chol) or more appropriately wixaritari (pronounced wiraritari). This tribe lives in the Sierra Madre Occidental and specifically Jalisco, Nayarit, zacateas and durango. The huicol are approximately 20,000 people and have lived in the Mexican mountains for around fifteen thousand years when approximated by the ashes they used in their daily sacrifices in their worship. The huicol speak a language called uto-aztecan and have been known to have been once hunters and gatherers but now are turned to trading. This is because they live near tourist towns and do not rely on tobacco farming as before. Since the huicol are very religious and conserved they have a ritual that is called the deer-maize-peyote ritual. These rituals are intense and emotional as they consist of loud shouting’s and wailings even weeping and singing. The peyote is a plant called biologically as lophophora wil liamsi that is numerous in Mexico . This plant when ingested makes one intoxicated and sees visions in colors. These are the components that make the peyote a must ingredient in the huicol rituals and prayers. The symbolic meaning of the deer-maize –peyote ritual is unification of the huicol and the bringing back of the original huicol way of life. That is, the ritual brings together the contradictions in life like societal, historical and ideological since the deer is seen as a god and maize is spiritual.

Art history Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Art history - Essay Example The painting clearly shows the image of a young mother nursing a child and a man standing with a spear. On the background there is a river passing by and visible buildings on the river bank. The man is guarding the woman who has probably just given birth. Poesia describes the works of Italian Renaissance that were inspired by myths and fables. The painting has an elaborate use of light and color which is a hallmark characteristic of Venetian paintings. The author of the work also used canvas. The use of mannerisms to depict human beings in distorted poses is also evident of Venetian painting (Humfrey, 132). Meeting of Bacchus and Ariadne depicts the magnificence of art through the images of strong men and women in some small setting. On the other hand Botticelli’s Birth of Venus shows the sensual evocation as depicted by the impressive looking Goddess of love in Venus. An Apocalypse refers to a revelation of something with hidden meaning. In the Christian context, Apocalypse generally refers to the revelation of some things which are hidden from human beings. The second figure from the fore represents death as it is bigger and scarier than the rest. The painting is woodcut the relief images are cut onto the surface of the wood. DÃ ¼rer depicts himself in the self portrait as a God. The implied position of an artist is that of divine nature akin to that of God to create. An artist’s role in the society had grown in stature. This is because artists were able to create image that were subject to various interpretations by the audience. DÃ ¼rer painted this picture to portray the present conditions in terms of religion during his time. It should be noted that the title of the painting is misleading as there are actually three apostles in the painting. The painting was presented to the magistrates after the Reformation. The painting seems to appreciate the role of scripture in the society but warns against false teachings. In essence,

In what ways have relations between China and Japan developed since Essay

In what ways have relations between China and Japan developed since 1949 - Essay Example However, the most notable facet in their relationship is their strategic involvement in the administration of their Asia Pacific multilateral cooperation, and more largely those of East Asia as a whole. Thus, the aim of this paper is to evaluate ways in which the relations between China and Japan have developed since 1949. From early 1940s, China has continuously expressed its displeasure in every actions that it perceived Japan was trying to chart an autonomous role for itself (Sutter, 2012, p. 175). China also harbored a mixed view of Japan being a potential threat, while at the same time Japan being a host to a huge US military presence aimed at countering China influence and push. Such apprehensions o led China to sign treaties aimed at countering Japan, such as the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship with the intention of defending it against any perceived Japanese invasion (Sutter, 2012, p. 271). From 1949 all through to end of 1950s, China formulated policies that sought to sway Japan through trade, in what was referred to as people’s diplomacy (Sutter, 2012, p. 4). Such engagements were conducted in conjunction with establishing acquaintances with Japan opposition political organizations, coupled with the exertion of pressure on Japan to sever ties with Taiwan. Hence, relations between Chi na and Japan deteriorated during late 1950s, especially, when Chinese mounted their pressure. However, following the collapse of Sino-Soviet relations, economic inevitability resulted in China communist government to reassess and rejuvenate its trade relations with Japan (Jian & Drew, 2009, ch 4). During the 1960 in what became the Cultural Revolution, China-Japan relations declined again due to Japan increasingly strength and self-rule from US (Saunders, 2008, p. 128). The communist government became concerned that, Japan will eventually re-militarize, so as to compensate for US condensed military presence across Asia under President Richard Nixon policies.

How our Understanding of Genetics Has Changed Over Time Research Paper

How our Understanding of Genetics Has Changed Over Time - Research Paper Example How our Understanding of Genetics has Changed Over Time Genetics as a field of science has come quite far from being a crude belief system that tries to explain why children resemble their parents, and explained through the assumptions by early Greek scholars with regards to the mixing of the vital forces of a man and a woman in forming new life (Guttman, 2011). The fast expansion and discovery of new information with regards to the process of heredity was due to the numerous inventions that were used to study biological sciences, as well as refining methods by which the invisible are being studied. In a short amount of time, genetics, especially through molecular biology became a well-respected science with regards to the study of the transmission of traits from parent to offspring, as well as being able to trace diseases that are otherwise communicable or transferable. The basics of genetics was first studied and published in 1865 by a monk named Gregor Mendel. He studied the patte rn of inheritance by garden peas, recorded what traits were present in the parent generation, what were transmitted in the first and succeeding generations, as well as finding out what ratios of the selected traits would be found in each generation of offspring (Hartl, 2011). Through these peas experiments the concept of dominant and recessive traits were formulated. Unfortunately, his results were shelved and remained hidden until rediscovered around the early 1900’s, by two independent scientists Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri, forming the chromosomal theory of inheritance (Cummings, 2010). This theory of inheritance explained how Mendel was able to come up with phenotypic ratios such as the 3:1 ratio, where 3 out of four would show the dominant trait, and 1 out of four for recessives. The ratio however was only able to explain traits that require at least one dominant gene to be expressed. The traits of organisms might be affected by the presence of other mediators of h eredity, and aside from the chromosomal theory of inheritance, it was proposed that the process of inheritance may also be explained through chemical reactions. Thus around the 1940’s-1950’s scientists were now on a race to find out the molecular basis of inheritance. The theories that were proliferating were either: the genetic materials were made up of proteins; or the genetic materials were made up of nucleic acids. Two scientists working together, named James Watson and Francis Crick won the race of finding out the structure of the genetic material by coming up with the specific base-pairing of the genetic material as well as the use of codon triplets in order to encode different amino acids (Hartl, 2011). They were given the Nobel Prize for discovering the structure of DNA, and even explaining its semi-conservative nature to the scientific community. When the structure of DNA was finally revealed, scientists were able to initiate projects which aimed to find out t he full sequences of many organisms on the planet, including humans. In the late 1990’s, the Human Genome Project was initiated in order to fully map all genes present in the human genome. As the project progresses, information regarding as to what genes encode for what protein,

Your objective for this assignment is to insert a significant floral Essay

Your objective for this assignment is to insert a significant floral feature into your environment and to observe and describe its impact - Essay Example Looking closely at the carnations on the table and the satisfaction I get from such a site, I would say my emotional and behavioral responses to the assignments I complete are significantly attached to them. Having watched body languages of colleagues who visit me, in addition to their cheerfulness at the site of these flowers, the reflection is simple; carnations are a healthful and natural moderator of how our moods adapt to the environment. Upon receiving these flowers, my excitement and the smile of one of my closest friends who happened to have been around during the delivery demonstrated extraordinary gratitude and delight to the vendor. The reaction was collective, age notwithstanding. The positive perception about simple things I experience in life have been enhanced since the instalment of the carnations on my table. The mood is exciting, the air is fresh, and the smell is wonderful. Soring depressions I had sitting in a quiet and dull room have subsided. Agitation and anxiety have also reduced a great deal. I wish my friends had the opportunity to spend countless hours with me in this study room to experience the relation and therapy emanating from mere product of nature. The placement method I employed in the display proves the point that the carnations symbolizes sharing. The arrangement is placed on the edge open to people who visit the room. The positive emotions need to be shared, and I believe my endeavors are perfect in lieu of wonders worth sharing. The instructions attached with the flowers helped in proper management of these delicate products. As much as new deliveries are scheduled after every two days, the outgoing bouquet still serves its purpose of bringing ambience and satisfaction to happy feelings and improved moods each and every day. Orders are made a day before the flowers the picked from the farms. Deliveries are made by

Paul’s Missionary Journey Essay Example for Free

Paul’s Missionary Journey Essay The Apostle Paul was the great leader in the momentous transition which characterized the apostolic age, the transition from a prevailingly Jewish to a prevailingly gentile Christianity. Under his guidance Christianity was saved from atrophy and death, which threatened it if it remained confined in Palestine. At the same time, by reason of his insight into the truth of the Gospel and fidelity to it, as well as by his devotion to the Old Testament and loyalty to the highest Jewish ideals in which he had been reared, he saved Christianity from the moral and religious degeneracy to which it would surely have been brought if it had broken with its past, and had tried to stand alone and helpless amid the whirl of Greek religious movements of the first and second Christian centuries. In Paul a great force of onward movement and a profound and conscious radicalism were combined with fundamentally conservative principles. Paul appears to have been born at not far from the same time as Jesus Christ. According to Acts, Paul was born in Tarsus (Acts 9:11; etc. ), received the double name Saul/Paul (13:9), and through his family possessed Tarsian and Roman citizenship (22:25-29 (Murphy-OConnor 32-33). Overall, Paul can be described as an able and thoroughly trained Jew, who had gained from his residence in a Greek city that degree of Greek education which complete familiarity with the Greek language and the habitual use of the Greek translation of the Scriptures could bring. At bottom he ever remained the Jew, in his feelings, his background of ideas, and his mode of thought, but he knew how to make tolerably intelligible to Greek readers the truths in which, as lie came to believe, lay the satisfaction of their deepest needs. At Jerusalem Paul entered ardently into the pursuit of the Pharisaic ideal of complete conformity in every particular to the Law. He was, he tells us, found blameless (to every eye but that of his own conscience), and, he says, I advanced in the Jews religion beyond many of mine own age among my countrymen, being more exceedingly zealous for the traditions of my fathers. With fiery passion he entered into the persecution of the Christian sect, was present and took a kind of part at the murder of Stephen, and undertook to carry on the work of suppression outside of Palestine at Damascus, whither he journeyed for this purpose with letters of introduction from the authorities at Jerusalem (Murphy-OConnor 52-57). At this time took place his conversion. That he was converted, and at or near Damascus, his own words leave no doubt. I persecuted, he says in writing to the Galatians, the Church of God. . . But when it was the good pleasure of God, who separated me, even from my mothers womb, and called me through his grace, to reveal his Son in me, that I might preach him among the gentiles; straightway I conferred not with flesh and blood: neither went I up to Jerusalem to them which were apostles before me: but I went away into Arabia; and again I returned unto Damascus (Gal i. 13-17). The change evidently presented itself to Pauls mind as a direct divine interposition in his life. It came to him in a revelation of Jesus Christ, whereby (and through no human intermediary) he received the Gospel which he preached, and the commission to be an apostle. He refers to it as to a single event and an absolute change of direction, not a gradual process and development; the two parts of his life stood sharply contrasted, he did not conceive that he had slid by imperceptible stages from one to the other. What things [i. e. his advantages of birth and Jewish attainment] were gain to me, these have I counted loss for Christ . . . or whom I suffered — as if in a single moment —the loss of all things (Phil. iii. 7. 8). From Pauls own words, then, we know that he was converted from a persecutor to a Christian, at a definite time and at or near Damascus, by what he considered to be the direct interposition of God; and it seems to be this experience of which he thought as a vision of the risen Christ (Hubbard 176-77). After Pauls conversion, which took place in the latter part of the reign of Tiberius (14-37 a. d. ), about fifteen years passed before the missionary career began of which we have knowledge from Acts and from Pauls own epistles. During this time Paul was first in Arabia, that is in some part of the empire of which Damascus was the most famous city, then in Damascus, and later, after a brief visit to Jerusalem, in Cilicia, doubtless at his old home Tarsus. In this period we may suppose that he was adjusting his whole system of thought to the new centre which had established itself in his mind, the Messiahship of Jesus. With the new basis in mind every part of his intellectual world must have been thought through. Especially, we may believe, will he have studied the relation of Christian faith to the old dispensation and to the ideas of the prophets. The fruit of these years we have in the matured thought of the epistles. They show a steadiness of view and a readiness of resource in the use of the Old Testament, which testify to through work in the time of preparation. Epistles written years apart, like Galatians, Romans and Philippians, surprise us by their uniformity of thought and unstrained similarity of language, in spite of the richness and vivacity of Pauls thought and style. So, for the most part, the characteristic ideas even of Epliesians and Colossians are found suggested in germ in Corinthians and the earlier epistles. Pauls epistles represent the literary flowering of a mind prepared by years of study and reflection (Murphy-OConnor 90-95). At Pauls missionary journey and the beginning then made of churches in Asia Minor we have already looked in a previous chapter. After his return to Antioch followed that great and pivotal occasion of early Christian history, the so-called Council, or Conference, at Jerusalem, described in the fifteenth chapter of Acts and by Paul in the second chapter of Galatians. At that time Paul established his right to carry on the work of Christian missions in accordance with his own principles and his own understanding of the Christian religion. His relation with the Twelve Apostles seems then and at all times to have been cordial. His difficulties came from others in the Jewish Church. To this we know of only one exception, apparently somewhat later than the Conference, the occasion at Antioch when Peter under pressure from Jerusalem withdrew from fellowship with the gentile brethren, and called out from Paul the severe rebuke of which we read in Galatians. There is reason to believe that the rebuke accomplished its purpose. At any rate, at a later time there is no evidence of a continued breach. The idea of missionary travel had evidently taken possession of Paul, for after returning from Jerusalem to Antioch he soon started out again, and was incessantly occupied with missionary work from now until the moment of his arrest at Jerusalem. Leaving Antioch on his second journey he and his companions hurried across Asia Minor, stopping only, it would appear, to revisit and inspect churches previously established. They were led by the Holy Spirit, as the writer of Acts believed, to direct their course westward as rapidly as possible to Greece, which was to be the next stage in the path to the capital of the world. In Macedonia and Achaia Paul and his companions worked with varying success at Philippi, Thessalonica, Ber? a, Athens, Corinth. At Corinth, the chief commercial city of Greece, the Christians arrived in the late autumn. The work opened well, and Paul remained at that important centre until a year from the following spring. The date of his arrival cannot be exactly determined, but is probably one of the five years between 49 and 53 a. d. While at Corinth he wrote the First and (if it is genuine) the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians. Somewhere about this time, perhaps before leaving Antioch for this journey, the Epistle to the Galatians was written. The churches of Galatia, to which it is addressed, were probably the churches known to us in Acts as Pisithan Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe. After a flying trip to Syria and perhaps to Jerusalem Paul returned to Ephesus in Asia Minor, where he settled down for a stay of three years. A few incidents of this period have been recorded in the Book of Acts, and are among the most striking and realistic that we have. They include a remarkable number of points of contact with facts known to us from archeological discoveries, and in no chapters of Acts is our confidence more fully reassured in the contemporary knowledge and the trustworthiness of the writer of the book. While at Ephesus Paul had much communication with Corinth, and wrote I Corinthians, which had clearly been preceded by another letter. There are indications in II Corinthians that after this he found the difficulties in the church at Corinth such that he wrote them at least one letter which has been lost, and made a short, and in its outcome exceedingly painful, trip to Corinth and back to Ephesus. Finally he was impelled by danger to his life to leave Ephesus, and went through Macedonia to Corinth. On the way he wrote, to prepare for his own presence, the epistle we call II Corinthians. Arriving at Corinth in the early winter he stayed until spring. His literary impulse continued active, and to this winter we owe the Epistle to the Romans. Earlier letters had been called out by special need in one or another church; in Romans Paul comes nearer to a systematic exposition of his theology than in any of his earlier writings. He knew the importance that would surely belong to the Christian Church of Rome. He had made up his mind to go there. But first he must go to Jerusalem, and there were dangers both from the risks of travel and from hostile men. Of each hind his life had had many examples. Accordingly he provided for the Roman Christians a clear statement of his main position, together with a reply to several of the chief objections brought against it, notably the allegations that his presentation of Christianity involves the abrogation of Gods promises to his chosen people, and that it opened the way to moral laxity. This letter Paul sent as an earnest of his own visit to Rome. He had been for a year or more supervising the collection by the churches of Asia Minor and Europe of a contribution for the poor Christians at Jerusalem; the gentile churches should thus make a repayment in carnal things to those who had made them to be partakers of their spiritual things. This contribution was now ready, and Paul himself with a group of representatives of the chief churches took ship at Philippi and Troas for Jerusalem. The voyage is narrated in detail in Acts, evidently by one who was a member of the company. At last Paul reached Jerusalem, and was well received by the church; but, followed as he was by the hatred of Jews from the Dispersion who had recognized the menace to the Jewish religion proceeding from the new sect, he was set upon by a mob, rescued only by being taken in custody by the Roman authorities, and after a series of exciting adventures which will be found admirably told in the Book of Acts, was brought to C`sarea. There he stayed a prisoner for two years and more until on the occasion of a change of Roman Governor his case was brought up for trial, when he exercised the right of a Roman citizen to appeal from the jurisdiction of the Governor to that of the imperial court at Rome. It was late autumn, but he was dispatched with a companion whom we may well believe to be Luke the beloved physician, and from whom our account certainly comes. The narrative of Pauls voyage and shipwreck, of the winter on the island of Malta, and the final arrival at Rome early in one of the years between 58 and 62 a. d. is familiar. It is the most important document that antiquity has left us for an understanding of the mode of working an ancient ship, while the picture which it gives of Paul as a practical man is a delightful supplement to our other knowledge of him(Murphy-OConnor 324). In Rome, while under guard awaiting trial, Paul probably wrote Philippians, Colossians, Philemon, and the circular letter, seemingly intended for churches in Asia Minor, known to us as Ephesians. They show some new development of ideas long present with him, and some new thoughts to which his other writings give no parallel, and the style of some of them has changed a bit from the freshness of Galatians and Romans; but these are not sufficient reasons for denying that Paul wrote the letters. They are, indeed, as it seems to me, beyond reasonable doubt genuine. The Book of Acts ends with the words, And he [Paul] abode two whole years in his own hired dwelling, and received all that went in unto him, preaching the Kingdom of God, and teaching the things concerning the Lord Jesus Christ with all boldness, none forbidding him. This period of two years is sufficient to include the composition of the four epistles to which reference has just been made, Philippians, Colossians, Philemon, and Epliesians, the so-called Epistles of the Captivity. What happened at the expiration of the period? Apparently Pauls case, long postponed, then came to trial. Did it result in his release or his execution? The evidence is meager and conflicting, and opinions differ. It is perhaps a little more likely that he was released, and entered on further missionary work, probably carrying out his original purpose of pushing on with the proclamation of his Gospel to the west, and establishing it in Spain; but of this period there is no narrative. If after two years Pauls imprisonment at Rome ended with his release, as the absence of well-founded charges against him would lead us to expect, he must have been later again apprehended, probably in connection with the persecution artfully turned against the Christians at the time of Neros fire in July of the year 64. It is probable that he was beheaded, to which privilege his Roman citizenship entitled him, and that he was ultimately buried on the Ostian Way at the spot where now stands the splendid basilica of St. Paul Outside the Walls.