Impact Of Globalization On Business Management Essay

BUS 1101: PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT The Impact of Management in Globalization of Business. Globalization is the process in which a business or organization start operating on an international scale. The effects of Globalization have created an immediate change in Business Management. As stated by the website www.ukessays.co.uk â€Å"Globalization on Business Management is interconnection of international markets managing business in a global industry. This includes foreign investments where a company expands its business and invest in foreign countries.† By the help of globalization; owing to the growth of Technologies, Telecommunications and Transport, Business Management has therefore become manageable and more systematic; because of the broadening of globalization more people have become captivated in international business and trade. Multinational corporations Production of services and goods is organized by a Multinational Corporation. Another name multinational corporation can be referred to as International Corporation. How has Globalization impacted Multinational Corporations(MNC)? Multinational Corporations is expanding their businesses in many ways. According to the website www.grin.com/documents â€Å"Globalization has become responsible for modernity that drives industrialization, technology and resulting in far flung interconnectedness. These interactions include economics, political and socio cultural collusions.† Charon 2010 stated that â€Å"World Interaction,Show MoreRelatedThe Impact Of Management On The Globalization Of Business849 Words   |  4 PagesThis essay is about the impact of management on the globalization of business. The impact of management will be on the following management topics: the multinational corporation; culture shock experienced by managers who work abroad; fair trade issues; ethical issues faced by managers in dealing with international business; the difference managerial styles in selected countries (for example Japan vs. the U.S. or Saudi Arabia vs. the U.S.); and the managerial culture of a selected country. BeforeRead MoreImpact Of Management On The Globalization Of Business1374 Words   |  6 Pages Impact of management in the globalization of business Ruth Wills University of the People Abstract The purpose of this paper is to show impact of management in the globalization of business. The following topics are addressed in this paper: 1. Definition of Multi-National Corporation 2. Cultures and Norms 3. Management Style and Culture Shock 4. Management Style of a Multi-National Corporation : Toyota Motors 5. Ethical and Economic challenges faced Multinational CorporationRead MoreThe Impact Of Management On The Globalization Of Business900 Words   |  4 PagesThe impact of management in the globalization of business. The multinational corporation The impact of globalization on international business International business refers to a wide range of business activities undertaken across national borders. Along with rapidly increasing globalization, international business has become a popular topic and has drawn the attention of business executives, government officials and academics. International business is different from domestic business. At the internationalRead MoreThe Impact of Management in the Globalization of Business609 Words   |  2 PagesThe world of business nowadays ignited and soared globally. It’s in the context of business itself. It’s inevitable. With this, the way the management manages such globalization in business has been affected consequently. According to Tabb (2008), globalization re fers to the eruption and rise of global civilization in which economic, political, environmental, and cultural proceedings in one area of the world affected another and is the result of communication, transportation, and information technologyRead MoreImpact Of Globalization On Business Management1947 Words   |  8 Pages Globalization, according to Rothenberg (2013), is defined as â€Å"the integration among the people, government, and companies of different countries.† Globalization is the creation and expansion of economic and social connections among people and organizations around the world. This process is fueled by movement of people, goods, ideas, technology, and money across national boundaries. Globalization of business is the change of a business from a company operating in one country to one that operatesRead MoreThe Impact Of Management On The Globalization Of Business911 Words   |  4 PagesThe impact of management in the Globalisation of business Management plays a crucial role in globalisation of a business, they do research and appoint qualified executives to help implement strategies and plans set by top management and chose the right style of management to manage the global business and strive in a competitive market. Manager of such global business are faced with many problem and issues, ethical issue and environmental issues, management of global business they learn from suchRead MoreImpact of Globalization on Business and Management Education3765 Words   |  16 PagesImpact of Globalization on Business and Management Education The business sector in India is highly promising in the present scenario. The impact of globalization has changed the business procedure in India in terms of psychology, methodology, technology, mindset work culture etc. Newer challenges, newer opportunities are day-by-day in front of Indian industries, which are profitable and prospective. The fundamental scope of doing business in India is lying with its people. The huge populationRead MoreImpact of Management in the Globalization of Business Essay examples991 Words   |  4 PagesImpact of management in the globalization of business Globalization is a popular subject in the commercial world now, garnering tremendous interest as exports and imports continue to increase as businesses grow throughout the worldwide market. Comprehending the basic summary of the worldwide market underlines tremendously related managerial and company degree programs offering valuable insights to present day managers. Generally speaking terms, globalization is the global integration of inter-culturalRead MoreThe Impact Of Talent Management On The Workforce And Globalization Is Changing The Way We Conduct Business1844 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction Talent Management is important to any organization. Baby boomers are nearing retirement age – we have a large number of people retiring each year and we need to plan for this so we can fill vacant positions with the best talent. There is unprecedented generational diversity in the workforce and globalization is changing the way we conduct business. And of particular concern to those of us in higher education, the mobility of academics affects our college’s workforce – who we hire andRead MoreGlobalization Of The Multinational Corporation Culture Shock Experienced By Managers Who Work Abroad935 Words   |  4 Pagesknow that Management is the process of getting things done effectively and efficiently, with and through other people. Management has been impacting the globalization of business positively and negatively. Since the beginning of international trade through the 20th century trade expanded rapidly as a result of improvement in many aspect such as communi cation transportation and management .There are some important subject when it comes to impact of management in globalization of business. The multinational

Satire Of Being Earnest And Jane Austen s Pride And...

Nineteenth century European society was characterized by organized religion and a rigid class system. Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest and Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice use satire to reveal faults in these elements of society. Many of Wilde’s criticisms of society are provoked by his closeted homosexuality. He portrays religion as a restricting, meaningless convention and depicts the aristocratic class as a hypocritical and unempathetic lot. Austen similarly finds faults in these areas of society, but her opinions stem from her experiences as a nineteenth century woman. Her criticisms of religion are directed toward the clergyman and she declares the aristocratic class to be both egotistical and image obsessed. Both authors satirize the same systems and traditions of society to raise awareness of faults within each area, but their critiques of each feature is different. Additionally, Wilde uses various literary techniques as methods of satirizat ion while Austen only uses her characters as sources of criticism. Wilde uses burlesque and wordplay to expose the limiting and inconsequential nature of religion, while Austen’s Mr. Collins demonstrates the corruption of the clergy. Before Algernon and Jack devise their plan to use christenings to gain a Christian second name, there is no indication that they are religious. They are only interested in religion because they realize they stand to gain secular benefits from it. In accordance with the plan, Jack

Renewable Energy Essay - 1099 Words

Renewable Energy Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be transformed: the first law of conservation of energy. Since the earliest days of human history, man have always been looking forward to control energy. But it wasnt until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries that humanity finally learned to harness the high concentration of energy existent in fossil fuels. (Why Sustainable Energy Matters,Learning Space). Even though humans achieved to apply the first law of conservation of energy/matter, they failed to understand the principle. That is that energy/matter cannot be created or destroyed. Missing this premise and walking society towards modernization, humanity has been destroying the environment with contamination†¦show more content†¦Second, renewable energy systems make use of organic wastes, producing energy as well as cleaning the environment. For example, bio-diesel from unwanted cooking oil has saved approximately 1 billion of US gallons of petrol-d iesel while helping thousands of local restaurant owners get rid of their wastes. (Renewable Energy,American Green). Clearly, the use of the waste in the environment keeps both the carbon dioxide pollution and the organic wasted shedding under control. Finally, renewable energy is pro-environmental because is does not represent a hazard to the Earth. In the contrary, renewable energy resolves all menaces that could degrade the environment. (Solar Energy,Renewable Energy for America). As an illustration, nuclear energy plants have solved the pollution problem efficiently, but they yield to a similar problem—radiation-- while renewable energy facilities give rise no further complications. Also, renewable energy is the most suitable of the energy resources because it is economical. Primarily, renewable energy generators take advantage of the free energy in the environment. (Solar Energy,Renewable Energy for America). Furthermore, they make use of the surplus of energy in the e nvironment. For instance, solar panels are the perfect form of renewable energy generation by making use of the solar energy the planet does not need. Second, renewable energy generators are economic to operate and maintain. OnceShow MoreRelatedRenewable Energies : Renewable Energy980 Words   |  4 PagesRenewable Energies BHARC1403 - ICWS Rishabh Bhasin â€Æ' â€Å"I declare that this assessment is my own work and that the sources of information and material I have used (including the internet) have been fully identified and properly acknowledged as required in the referencing guidelines provided.† â€Æ' Introduction Renewable sources of energy are the ones that can never be exhausted as they are provided by nature. For example- solar, hydro, wind, biomass. They produce little or no pollution and henceRead MoreRenewable Energy : The Energy926 Words   |  4 PagesRenewable Energy Is it possible to live without energy? Lately, the consumption of energy is increasing due to the growth of the world population. In this technological era where all the devices work by using energy, the new humankind challenge is providing sufficient amounts of energy. At Yale University, Dr. Ronald Smith teaches some courses in the areas of meteorology, oceanography, fluid mechanics, atmospheric physics, applied mathematics, mesoscale dynamics, environmental remote sensing. InRead MoreRenewable Energy : Renewable Resources1944 Words   |  8 PagesRenewable energy: energy in which comes from natural resources that are naturally replenished, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat (Bhatia, 2014). This essay is focused on the main three renewable energies, wind, sunlight, and water. Renewable resources are well on the way to out rule the fossil fuel industry because of the diminishing amount of fossil fuels left in the world and increase of renewable resource use, the damage fossil fuels do to the environment, and the variousRead MoreRenewable Resources For Renewable Energy Essay1157 Words   |  5 Pages Renewable Resources used to be a source that was futuristic and far beyond the time period. Fossil Fuels are damaging to the home that is named Earth. Americans should support the production of renewable resources because they are more efficient, the world will experience a decline in the emission of Fossil Fuels, and the use of of WWS (Wind, Water, Solar) Resources will produce a more resilient source when compared to the sources that in effect now. WWS Resources produce more efficiently thanRead MoreThe Energy, Clean Renewable Energy902 Words   |  4 Pagesseems to be right within humanities grasp? The answer is energy, clean renewable energy. With the increasing advances in modern society, as does the requirement of more energy becomes necessary. Currently humanity are facing a dilemma where humans are burning threw nonrenewable resources such as fossil fuels, coal, natural gas, and oil faster than they can be replenished from a set stock. Civilization also faces problems stemming from harmful energy sources such as nuclear, and fossil fuels, etc. wereRead MoreEnergy Efficiency And Renewable Energy1975 Words   |  8 Pagessource of energy is the one that is inexhaustible and can also be naturally replenished and readily produced. The next step would be to develop that type of renewable energy efficiently while also distributing it more effectively. The most rational way to create and produce energy is to generate it renewa bly by utilizing naturally reoccurring resources. Perhaps, that is why energy efficiency and renewable energy are gaining more and more attention from the largest names in the financial, energy, and industrialRead MoreRenewable Energy: Is It the Solution?1571 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Renewable energy is considered a revolutionary thing, something that can save us from peak oil and climate change, but is it really what it seems? Renewable energy can help ease our predicament. There are multiple ways to achieve this, including the use of newer, greener technologies such as wind, solar power, and biomass. The purpose of this paper is to educate, theorize, and discuss various aspects of renewable energy, such as its history, development, and the advantages and disadvantagesRead MoreEssay on Renewable Energy873 Words   |  4 PagesSoutheast Polk High School opened they added many new energy saving products. This included installing geothermal heating under the high school cutting back on the cost of heating such a large building. Many new windows help save on energy used to light the building along with automatic lights that turn off after several minutes without movement. The new high school shows how easy it is to save money and help the environment. Renewable energy is good for all aspects of the U.S, providing jobs, economicalRead MoreEnergy Sources Of Renewable Energy1944 Words   |  8 PagesExecutive Summary The development of renewable and alternative energy is becoming more and more necessary as the traditional fossil fuel energy is a non-renewable energy and can cause various environmental problems such as the global warming effect. However, the challenge today in generating alternative energy is to find a cost effective way while has the smallest harmful environmental impacts. Developing bioenergy have the advantage of reducing greenhouse gas emission while creating great economicRead MoreRenewable Energy Essay813 Words   |  4 PagesStudyonlinenow Renewable Energy Is Only Part of the Best Way to Prevent Climate Change In our present life we are going through two of the main hazardous changes on the Earth, global warming and greenhouse affects. We want mankind to survive for a very long time, but if we keep using non-renewable energies the way we do, do you think we will be able to survive for a long time? I strongly believe that renewable energy is only part of the best way to prevent climate change. In this essay I

Women in the French Revolution - 1101 Words

Christopher Tejeda 19 October 2010 History 4, 20316, T-Th 9:45-11:10 Women in the French Revolution: The Ultimate Failure of Women’s Acquisition of Equal Rights The French Revolution has often been touted as the revolution that liberated individuals and gave triumph to traditionally oppressed groups. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, which was France’s declaration of rights drafted during the revolution, garnered basic human rights to all man, leaving all women as a subservient afterthought. Due to this oversight, many women as well as some men began to challenge exactly who deserved these rights and demanded equality for all women. While ultimately failing in Revolutionary France, the radical women’s movements†¦show more content†¦Women also decided to band together and create movements in support of women’s rights. Political clubs such as The Confederation of the Friends of Truth began accepting females. A political group associated with The Friends of Truth was called Cercle Social (Social Circle). This group was a movement for equality for women and included Condorcet as on of its members. In an address to The Friends of Truth, Etta Palm D’Aelders, a prominent female figurehead among the club, makes a statement to the general male public outlining overall female sentiment: From now on we should be your voluntary companions and not your slaves. Let us merit your attachment†¦And if devotion to study, if patriotic zeal, if virtue itself, which rests so often on love of glory, is as natural to us as to you, why do we not receive the same education and the same mean to acquire them?[5] Here, Palm asks why women continue to experience prejudice and why, if they are just as passionate and capable, are women kept in a state of perpetual ignorance. Such were the nature of most of the female activists and various political groups. There was one point, however, when theShow MoreRelatedWomen Of The French Revolution1696 Words   |  7 PagesWomen participated in virtually every aspect of the French Revolution. Their participation almost always proved controversial, as women s status in the family, society, and politics had long been a subject of great debate. In the eighteenth century, women were destined to cater to their husbands and families, taking on domestic roles in the home rather than public, political ones. Despite this, women in the revolution demonstrated themselves as symbols of subversive brilliance, previously unprecedentedRead MoreWomen in the French Revolution714 Words   |  3 Pagesthe streets of Paris during the French Revolution (Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities). The French Revolution started in 1789 and came to a complete end in 1799; it was a turning point for the majority of France, the commoners, who were pressured by the aristocracy. Women during this time had little to no rights, but were very involved in the Revolution. They handled necessary duties for women at that time as well as staging demonstrations and riots; other women were more involved than othersRead MoreFrench Revolution and Women3224 Words   |  13 PagesDo you see a change in the status and role of the women during the French Revolution? In what ways did it find and an expression in popular culture, art and the new political changes associated with the French Revolution? BY: RITESH AGARWAL B.A. HISTORY HONS IIIRD YEAR MODERN WORLD HISTORY The great French feminist, Simone de Beauviour remarked, â€Å"The world has always belonged to males †¦ One might expect the French Revolution to have changed women’s lot. It did nothing of the kind. That bourgeoisRead MoreWomen in the French Revolution1796 Words   |  8 PagesWomen in the French Revolution The French Revolution was a time of cast conflict that dramatically altered the political and social order of France. Women during the revolution period had many roles including theyre political involvement, donation of time to revolutionaries, and contributions to ideologies. However, with all the contributions, women were still victimized by the changes that occurred. While these roles had a huge impact on the equality between mean and women this impact did notRead MoreWomen And Women During The French Revolution1413 Words   |  6 PagesDuring the French Revolution, namely 1789, men and women were both dealing with change in government, society, and many different aspects of life. Two documents that represent the rights of men and women are Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and The Vindication of the Rights of Woman. These two documents are similar in content because they describe how men and women should be treated as equals in society. The Declaration of the R ights of Man and of the Citizen came first, and sparkedRead More Declaring the Rights of Men and Women in the French Revolution628 Words   |  3 Pages The French Revolution was a dark time in the history of man. From corruption in government to the almost certainty of starvation for the French peasants, there seemed to be no sign of better times. These were just a few of the logs in the ever-growing revolutionary fire that was burning in the late 1700s. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;There were many causes to the French Revolution ranging from: poor distribution of power and wealth, a bad harvest which left no grain for bread, a manufacturingRead MoreWomen s Rights During The French Revolution1041 Words   |  5 Pages However, ‘theory’ is the key word here, as this was not true in practice. As Johnson highlights, there were no legal provisions at any point during the French Revolution to guarantee these rights. Although the estates system was abolished, the class system remained, and there continued to be huge wealth disparity in France. As the October Days in the same year highlighted, urban workers continued to struggle to afford bread. The Declaration only guaranteed equality of rights. Although this isRead MoreBroken Promises of the French Revolution and Why French Women Did Not Get the Vote Until 19442987 Words   |  12 PagesPromises of the French Revolution and Why French Women Did Not Get the Vote Until 1944 Because of the discontinuity of French political history, the strength of the Patriarchal culture, and the inability of the French feminist movement to form a cohesive unit, French women could not obtain the right to vote until 1944. To answer the question of why French women did not receive the right to vote until April 21, 1944, one only needs to look at the paradoxical nature of the French Revolution of 1789Read MoreElusive Women Rights As widely cited the French Revolution served as the greatest war of liberation3000 Words   |  12 PagesElusive Women Rights As widely cited the French Revolution served as the greatest war of liberation of the human race and decried as bloodthirsty lesson on the working of mob mentality. Women despite their extensive participation in the relatively legitimate and orderly legislative and political process, which characterized the first phase of the Revolution, as well as in the violence of the Terror were no better off in 1804 after the formulation of the Napoleonic Code. The question asked is plainRead MoreThe French Revolution of 1789- 1799 was a time of change for many people of France. The Revolution600 Words   |  3 PagesThe French Revolution of 1789- 1799 was a time of change for many people of France. The Revolution led to many changes in France which at the time of the Revolution, was the most powerful state in Europe. The major cause of the French Revolution was the disputes between the different types of social classes in French society. Harsh economic conditions brought high taxes and bad ha rvests resulted in suffering for the revolutionary women. They broke people down in Three estates: 1st was made up of

Social Contract And Legitimacy Theory In Accounting

Question: Discuss about the Social Contract And Legitimacy Theory In Accounting. Answer: Introduction The idea of the social contract is developed in the late 17th Century and predates the European Enlightenment. English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (15881679) was the first person that detailed account of social contract theory in a series of works and out of these, the most famous of that is The Leviathan (1651). True and fair view (TFV) is an accounting concept that means financial standards are fairly and truly presented with followed the accounting standards. Moreover, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (three thinkers or contributors) those provided an alternative view to regulatory social contract theory that applicant in the TFV principles. This paper explains relevance of Hobbes, Lockes and Rousseau philosophy in the social contract to accounting. Other main aim is to describe the relevance of the social contract in the context of this paper. On the other hand, this paper is also explains the main concept/philosophy of social contract to accounting in the context of application of TFV principle. At the same time, this paper also explains the relevant philosophies and contributions of the main philosophers in the social contract theory. In the context of this research study, the main aim is to identify the TFV principle represents or not a social contract between the accounting professions. This paper conducts literature review to support the position with convincing arguments regarding the relevance and application of the social contract to Legitimacy Theory in accounting. TFV Represents a Social Contract between the Accounting Profession The proper discussion of the social contract theory is essential to understand the TFV (true and fair view) principle represents a social contract between the accounting professions. In this section, conducts critical review and explains the main view of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau regarding the social contract theory. This section critically analysis of the TFV principle represents a social contract between the business communities and accounting profession. Historical Background of Social Contract Theory: In the words of Evans, Baskerville and Nara (2015), social contract theory is a philosophy that views present the persons moral and political obligations are dependent upon an agreement/contract among them to form the society in that they residence. Philosophers use a social contract or agreement to explain to the behavior of prison and accept the death penalty. Social contract theory have developed in the late 17th century that rightly associated with political theory and modern moral or values that is firstly fully exposed and explained by Thomas Hobbes. Thomas Hobbes was first proponents then John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are popular proponents those contributed in social contract theory. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) faced the English Civil War (1642-1648) that impacted on their thoughts or views related to moral values and social lives (Evans, Baskerville and Nara, 2015). The war was a clash between the King and his supporters that described by Hobbes in the theory of the Divine Right of Kings. Hobbes' political theory is divided into two parts that are human motivation theory and social contract theory. Hobbes has first that explained a theory of human nature and human motivation that gives rise to a particular view of moral values and political lives of people. In addition, Albu, Albu Alexander (2013) stated that John Locke (1632-1704) uses Hobbes social contract theory to a quite different end as stated that men's uniting into common-wealth. Mens is united for preserving their lives, preservation of their wealth, liberty, and well-being and they resisting the authority of a civil government or King. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) has described two distinct social contract theories these are moral and political evolution of human beings theory and normative or idealized theory of the social contract. Rousseau's social contract theories presented a consistent view of people moral and political situation. According to social contract theory, valid and universally applicable moral or ethical rules can be identified by asking people what rules would voluntarily make if there were no moral or ethical rules. Not everyone would agree on the single rule that can be the subject of universal moral rules (Albu, Albu Alexander, 2013). All member o f society agree to social contract simply by participating in the society and making of universally moral rules. According to Matuszak, R?a?ska Macuda (2015), social contract theory has been one of the most dominant social theories within political theory and moral theory during the modern west history. In the 20th century, political theory and moral theory retained these philosophers view as some modern philosophers such as John Rawl, David Gauthier and others were followed by social contract theory philosophy to explain modern political theory and moral theory. In recent times, philosophers from different views have presented new criticisms of social contract theory. In addition, feminists and race conscious philosophers have argued that this theory is presented incomplete picture of people moral, values, political lives, class and social lives (Matuszak, R?a?ska Macuda, 2015). Social contract theories main principles are moral values and ethical codes that rational people with adopt the rules of social and political lives. Moral and ethical codes are the principles of social contract theor y that indicated it is related to the current accounting standards and principles of business. True and Fair View (TFV) Concept of Accounting: Salihin, Fatima Anam Ousama (2014) explained that accounting standards explained that each companies are prepared and presented the true and fair financial statement to prevent the interest of all stakeholders. Represent the fair and true financial statement is related to moral values and ethics of the accounting profession. The Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) explained accounting standard that it is essential for any kinds of firms to apply in their business and prepared or presented the fair and true financial statement in from of stakeholders. It is essential for any kinds of companies are preparation of full, true and fair profit loss statement, balance sheets and cash flow statement to present accurate financial position of business in front of stakeholders and market (Salihin, Fatima and Anam Ousama, 2014). According to Vladu, Salas and Matis (2012), in the late nineteenth, the legal view of a TFV has traditionally favoured principle in financial statement has been shaped by the early twentieth century views of the courts in the audit functions and the purpose of prepare fair and accurate financial statement. In the recent times, fair and true view also consider as a concept of business ethics to prevent the right and interest of all stakeholders while prepare financial statement by present fair, accurate and correct financial position of the company. The business ethics is related to the social contract theory through explained that accountants, financial manager, CFO and auditor all are responsible to present fair and true financial condition of the company through followed accounting standards and business ethics (Vladu, Salas Matis, 2012). TFV indicates a social contract among the accounting profession and the business community: In the words of Alawattage (2011), the social contract theory and TFV principles are researched in the above section that present a social contract among the accounting profession and the business community. In other words, accounting profession does support the social contract as the TFV principle or concept explained the employees related to accounting profession doesn't capture the regulators for any sense of power. Accounting professionals does not right to misuse their power to represent financial misstatement and present unfair or wring financial reporting (Alawattage, 2011). It is essential for professionals those working in accounting profession behaved socially or ethically. Jahn and Brhl (2016) stated differently that the social contract theory is provide an idea that utilized in the accounting theory as it is given attention on employee moral values, ethics and fair work. According to social contract theory, moral, political and ethical obligations adopt as rules of accounting profession to examine business ethics and TFV questions. Social contract theory is used in accounting professional and the business community to evaluate questions in business ethics. Social contract theory has implications throughout several areas of accounting theory such as TFV concept, business ethics, environmental and sustainable reporting, corporate governance, and corporate social responsibility (Jahn Brhl, 2016). Jacobs (2012) presented their viewed in this topic through stated that the social concept theory is a base of philosophy of moral values, ethics and political science that has more recently been utilized to the study of account professional and business ethics. According to social contract theory, fair and universally applicable accounting principles or standards can be determined through evaluate what standards or principles would appropriate to business ethics and beneficial for business community. Every business community would agree to present the fair or true financial statement of the business as it can be subject of universal business ethical rules. Everyone would agree to fairness, transparence and pure financial reporting, so these can be related to social contract theory (Jacobs, 2012). The social contract theory is an unwritten and the strictly hypothesis agreement of moral rules that is not to violate by person or people. All business communities agree to business ethics and TFV rule not to violate by companies in the business world. In addition, Christensen, Nikolaev Wittenberg?Moerman (2016) predicted that three mainstream theories of business ethics application are related to social contract theory. In the past times, the stakeholders theory of accounting is explained the company has earned the largest possible profit for its owners and stakeholders without consider other stakeholders interest and business ethics. In the recent times, the stakeholder theory is applied the social contract theory through explained that profit earning is the main aim of business, but also considered the business ethics and prevent the interest of all stakeholders. The stakeholder theory is related to TFV accounting standards and social contract theory through considered all stakeholders interest while taking business ethical decision and present financial statements of the company. The stockholder theory now changed with stakeholder theory that explained a company is morally obliged to all parties and all stakeholders, including business partners, suppliers, owners or management, employees, distributors, customers, clients, the community and the environment (Christensen, Nikolaev Wittenberg?Moerman, 2016). Social contract theory agrees that all business community operate under an unwritten contract with the society and business world in that the company to do business under the business ethics that is beneficial for society, community and environment. Orij (2010) submitted that ethical decision in business can be strongly related to the social contract theory that explained the ethical decision-making process. Moreover, TFV represents a social contract theory is related to the accounting profession as fair and true value present the accurate financial statement for preventing common interest of stakeholders. Major companies applied stockholders theory and TFV principle to support business ethical decision that was most beneficial for the all stakeholders. Stakeholder theory would require the owner to consider the interest of stakeholders, community and environment. Social contract theory is required the owner to consider the interest of the stakeholders and business decision are impacted on society, community and stakeholders (Orij, 2010). In addition, social contract theory is the concept that applied in the study of business ethics, due to it is associated to broader business ethical issues on many business communities agree. Moreover, Shove (2010) argues that the TFV represents differently a social contract theory related to the accounting profession and the business communities through companies business decision based on ethics, morale and laws. Companies decision is based on provide substantial benefits from society through considered the common interest of stakeholders. In recent times, social contract theory is explained the companies contributed into the society through employing people, providing products or services, developing wealth and enhance living way or standard of the people (Shove, 2010). Jones (2010) presented the totally different viewed from other scholars as stated that changing business climate is also developed the need of implication of social contract in the accounting professional. In 2012, a study on the changing business climate in the America identified that 84% of companies or owners or management believe society and ethics as expects companies played an active role in social, political, environmental and business ethics issues. Most of these not agree that businesses to obey the law and ethics, but they also believed that businesses to reinvest in their communities and helped society or people in meeting their live needs. According to the social contract theory, changing business climate and changing customer expectation from businesses required the companies followed the laws and ethics and focused on corporate governance, sustainability and corporate social responsibility to invest in their communities. Social justice, social benefits and social equali ty are also considered by companies to apply the social contract theory in the business (Jones, 2010). True, fair and accurate financial statements indicate the company has followed the accounting standards or laws to maintain the social value of the business. Social Contract Theory Application in Accounting In order to explain relevance and application of the social contract to legitimacy theory in accounting, first there is need to understand the meaning of the social contract and legitimacy in the accounting. It is important to reach the specific conclusion and make this report is more qualitative. According to Islam (2014), a social contract is an unwritten and tacit agreement that is presented between the member of the society and employee of the organization. A social contract does not indicate to an actual contract. The idea of the social contract is not new, it is old of hundred years. In the simple words, the social contract appears when a group of people meet with individual needs in order to support them for their benefits. Social contract theory is well- known philosophical idea that determines the individuals ethical and political obligations related to an agreement that has in the business environment with others. In this, it is possible that the social contract can be in t he written form of the law (Mkel Nsi, 2010). In the business accounting, the social contract theory refers to the liabilities organizations to communicate in the business world. It also contains that corporate governance, corporate social responsibility and corporate philanthropy. There is a significant role of legitimacy theory in accounting the accounting. The term legitimacy is related to something legitimate that refers to refers to use of valid codes, customers, rules and standard during the accounting practices. The increasing the importance of using the appropriate accounting standard is also raised the concept of legitimacy theory in the accounting standard. The focus on the legitimacy in the accounting minimizes the uncertainties in the business process (Carnegie Napier, 2010). The legitimacy theory in accounting process helps an organization to maintain business risk as well as transparency in the business. In the simple words, the legitimacy theory in the accounting standard is quietly associated with transparency and fairness in the accounting process. The fairness and transparency in the accounting process is also a part of the ethical and social business practices. The legitimacy in the accounting concerns towards overall welfare of the business . The consideration of social contract in the accounting is important for the benefit of organizations and society. Along with this, involvement of social contract in accounting fulfills the necessity of the legitimacy theory through reducing the business risk and maintaining the transparency within the business. In the views of Ieng Chu et al (2012), legitimacy theory is the significant theory that achieves the support through concept of social contract. The social contract to legitimacy theory is an effective tool that motivates the business organizations for the environmental reporting. Along with this, social contract to legitimacy theory provides the excellent depiction to seek legitimize to ensure that business organizations are operating their business according to norms and bounds in relation to their respective societies. The social norms and bounds are being change over the time in relation to social values and norms which is required for the business organizations to modify their business reporting and recording practices. The change in the business reporting practices support the business organization in disclosing their environmental impact with the social perceptions. In support of this, Perks et al (2013) stated that social contract or corporate disclosures are important to legitimize the existence and actions of the business organizations. The legitimacy theory supports the notions of the business organizations that they use in their reporting policies and practices. It also indicates that business operations of the firm are consistent with the societys expectations and priorities. Nicholls (2010) stated that social contact affect the reliability and validity of the of the accounting works. In this way, most of the business organization involves the environmental issues or policies in accounting practices. The comprehensive system of environmental accounting is focused on the social contract to legitimacy theory in accounting. Researcher also find out that business organization should perform or behave in the socially responsible way for the sustainability development and engage with the environmental issues for the protection of business from the external environmental factors. At the same time, involvement of the business organizations in social contract dependent on the societys willingness that allow to business organizations to operate their business effectively. In the views of Jones (2010), social contract is the contract between the business organization and society, in this the main objective of business organization is to make the profits through complying or following the social responsibilities in effective manner. The concept of social contract is an underlying principle and different theories of the corporate disclosure are also based on this concept that provides the framework for reporting and studying the environmental issues and factors through business organizations. At the same time, Aribi Gao (2010) measured that business organizations including the social institutions operates their business in society by the helps of social contract. This helps the business organizations in achieving the business growth and survival of business through distributing the economic, social and political benefits to society people or groups. On the other hand, it is also analyses that if any business organization breaches the social contract the n it may affect the growth and brand image of business organization negatively. Social contract and its relevance to legitimacy theory in accounting: The legitimacy theory is defined that business organization can maintain their business operations to indicate that business organizations are getting the support from the community. Business organizations can get the support from the community in the form of results that society perceived from the business organizations, the business organizations can get the support from the society through complying with expectation of society (Bebbington et al, 2014). In the case, when business organizations does not satisfy the society through business operations in legitimate manner or in an acceptable then society breach the business organization social contract. In the view of Carnegie Napier (2010) the increasing business activities over the world is also increasing the organization regarding the social responsibility. The current business environment, 84 percent organizations are small and medial sizes enterprises that believe that social contract is a way of the growth in the business. It also plays a significant role in managing the social, political and environmental issues. In the accounting, not only documents say to follows the law but also social contract also says to follow legal responsibility regarding the business. Wallenburg Schffler (2014) presented the similar viewed of Carnegie and Napier (2010) and stated that the development in the communication and globalization raised the new opportunities for the business world. Social contract theory applications and relevance in accounting legitimacy theory critically discussed in this section. In this part, discusses the social contract theory application and relevance in the different accounting concepts, including TFV concept, stakeholder theory, business ethics, environmental and sustainable reporting, corporate governance, and corporate social responsibility. Social accounting theory application in TFV concept or principle, stakeholder theory and business ethics are already discussed in the above section, so it not described in this part (Wallenburg Schffler, 2014). The following are the others accounting theories that are relevance and application of the social contract theory: Social contract theory applications in corporate governance: According to Frynas and Stephens (2015), corporate governance is an importance concept of social theory contract in business through making sure that business not harmed community, environment and planet for their operations or functions. Corporate governance is an accounting policy that a company applied to follow the legal and ethical path to ensure sustainability of the business and environment. Corporate governance accounting concept is ensured that corporation follow the code of conduct/ethics to maintain transparence, fairness and accountability for achieving stakeholders trust and creating social value. Transparence, accountability and fairness in financial reporting ensured the organization has focused on society and community to consider the interest of the stakeholders (Frynas Stephens, 2015). The board of directors and management of the company are accountable and obliged for corporate governance those ensured t hat the investors and shareholders interests are not jeopardized. In addition, Christensen, Nikolaev Wittenberg, Moerman (2016) stated different viewed that the corporate governance theories cannot fully described the complexity and heterogeneity of corporate business. Corporate governance is different from country to country due to people different culture, moral values, ethics, political and social lives. Cultural, economical, political and social context of countries contribute to vary governance in developing countries and developed countries. The literature has confirmed that business world would bring about different perceptions towards corporate governance and the root of social contract theory is crucial (Christensen, Nikolaev Wittenberg, Moerman, 2016). It is significant to re-visit corporate governance in the conjunction of social contract theory with a new angle that has social and universal view and subjective from the perspective of political and social science. Social contract theory applications in Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) theory: In the word of Lanis Richardson (2012), CSR is related to the corporate responsibility for the society, community and universe that is related to social contract theory. CSR strategies are applied by the companies to creating sustainable and renewable business solutions that is prevented and not harmed the society, people, and planet. CSR is based on the social contract theory that applied by the companies to fulfill their social responsibility and response to the wants and needs of its stakeholders with considered their interest. The CSR strategy applied by the companies to prevent the people, society, community and environment through apply the waste management as well as reuse and recycle of waste strategy (Lanis Richardson, 2012). The most of the companies focused on reduce waste and reduce carbon emissions that generated during the production under CSR activities/strategies to prevent the peop le and planet from the harmful gases. In addition, Parker (2011) explained similar views of Lanis and Richardson (2012) and described that the CSR strategy is also related to the accounting as it is the social responsibility of any organization to present the fair and true financial statements in front of people. The financial misstatement is affected the investors or shareholders investment decision or returns as well as affected the trust of stakeholders that is not ethical aspect of the business and indicated the company has not followed their social responsibility for the people. In recent times, CSR is becoming the importance business concept that required the all kinds of firms focused on it to maintain people trust and value of firm (Parker, 2011). In addition, Carroll Shabana (2010) stated totally different views from Parker (2011) and expressed that the concept of business ethics in the accounting means the employee of accounting or financial department must behave right and follow morals values or ethics to benefit everyone and all stakeholders in the society or community. The concept of business is different with the concept of corporate governance, sustainability, and CSR as ethics address to the values and morals a person or organization, while others practices involve a small part of each of these ethical areas. Ethics means corporations follow laws, regulations and business ethics to perform different business functions or activities for provide benefits of society, while corporate governance and CSR means corporations have responsibilities to protect the interest of other stakeholder. In addition, business ethics is associated with society or community, while CSR and governance related to people, environment and plane t (Carroll Shabana, 2010). Social contract theory is more related with business ethics as ethics indicated the morality and values relates to an individual person and organization. Social contract theory is also relevant with CSR as this concept represents the social responsibility of corporation to meet the expectation of the people. The above section indicated that the relevance and application of the social contract theory in the different accounting theories such as stakeholders theory, business ethics, corporate governance, CSR and others. The above literature reviewed justified that social contract theory is also applicable in the current accounting concepts and theories through indicated the organizations or managements focused on society and community. Conclusion It can be concluded that TFV (true and fair view) describes a social contract between the accounting profession and the business communities. The finding of the literature indicated that relevance and application of the social contract theory in accounting concepts, principles and standards. The main purpose of this paper was to understand historical background of social contract theory and TFV and its application in the accounting profession. This paper presented many controversies and debates regarding TFV are interrelated to social contract theory in accounting. It is essential to make separate assessment for both TFV and social contract theory in the application of accounting. Furthermore, it can be concluded that social contract theory is the base of TFV, business ethics, and accounting principles/standards, so that companies are agreed to focus or prevent of society, community, environment and planet, while doing business activities or functions. References Alawattage, C. (2011). The calculative reproduction of social structuresThe field of gem mining in Sri Lanka.Critical Perspectives on Accounting,22(1), 1-19. Albu, C. N., Albu, N., Alexander, D. (2013). The true and fair view concept in Romania: A case study of concept transferability. InAccounting in Central and Eastern Europe(pp. 61-90). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Annisette, M., Richardson, A. J. (2011). Justification and accounting: applying sociology of worth to accounting research.Accounting, Auditing Accountability Journal,24(2), 229-249. Aribi, Z.A. Gao, S., (2010). Corporate social responsibility disclosure: A comparison between Islamic and conventional financial institutions.Journal of Financial Reporting and Accounting,8(2),72-91. Bebbington, J., Unerman, J. and O'Dwyer, B. (2014). Sustainability Accounting and Accountability. UK: Routledge. Carnegie, G.D. Napier, C.J., (2010). Traditional accountants and business professionals: Portraying the accounting profession after Enron.Accounting, Organizations and Society,35(3), 360-376. Carroll, A. B., Shabana, K. M. (2010). The business case for corporate social responsibility: A review of concepts, research and practice. International journal of management reviews, 12(1), 85-105. Christensen, H. B., Nikolaev, V. V., Wittenberg?Moerman, R. (2016). Accounting information in financial contracting: The incomplete contract theory perspective.Journal of Accounting Research,54(2), 397-435. Evans, L., Baskerville, R., Nara, K. (2015). Colliding worlds: Issues relating to language translation in accounting and some lessons from other disciplines.Abacus,51(1),1-36. Frynas, J. G., Stephens, S. (2015). Political corporate social responsibility: Reviewing theories and setting new agendas.International Journal of Management Reviews,17(4), 483 509. Ieng Chu, C., Chatterjee, B. Brown, A., (2012). The current status of greenhouse gas reporting by Chinese companies: A test of legitimacy theory.Managerial Auditing Journal,28(2),114-139. Islam, M. (2014). Social Compliance Accounting: Managing Legitimacy in Global Supply Chains. Germany: Springer. Jacobs, K. (2012). Making sense of social practice: theoretical pluralism in public sector accounting research.Financial Accountability Management,28(1), 1-25. Jahn, J., Brhl, R. (2016). How Friedmans View on Individual Freedom Relates to Stakeholder Theory and Social Contract Theory.Journal of Business Ethics, 1-12. Jones, M. J. (2010). Accounting for the environment: Towards a theoretical perspective for environmental accounting and reporting. InAccounting Forum, 34(2),123-138. Jones, M.J., (2010). Accounting for the environment: Towards a theoretical perspective for environmental accounting and reporting. InAccounting ForumVol. 34, No. 2, 123-138. Lanis, R., Richardson, G. (2012). Corporate social responsibility and tax aggressiveness: atest of legitimacy theory. Accounting, Auditing Accountability Journal, 26(1), 75-100. Li, H., Gupta, A., Zhang, J., Sarathy, R. (2014). Examining the decision to use standalone personal health record systems as a trust-enabled fair social contract.Decision Support Systems,57, 376-386. Mkel, H. Nsi, S., (2010). Social responsibilities of MNCs in downsizing operations: A Finnish forest sector case analysed from the stakeholder, social contract and legitimacy theory point of view.Accounting, Auditing Accountability Journal,23(2), 149-174. Matuszak, ?., R?a?ska, E., Macuda, M. (2015). The concept of CSR in accounting theory and practice in Poland: an empirical study.Zeszyty Teoretyczne Rachunkowo?ci, (84), 115 138. Nicholls, A., (2010). The legitimacy of social entrepreneurship: reflexive isomorphism in a pre?paradigmatic field.Entrepreneurship theory and practice,34(4), 611-633. Orij, R. (2010). Corporate social disclosures in the context of national cultures and stakeholder theory.Accounting, Auditing Accountability Journal,23(7), 868-889. Parker, L. D. (2011). Twenty-one years of social and environmental accountability research: A coming of age. InAccounting Forum, 35(1), 1-10. Perks, K.J., Farache, F., Shukla, P. Berry, A., (2013). Communicating responsibility practicing irresponsibility in CSR advertisements.Journal of Business Research,66(10), 1881-1888. Salihin, A., Fatima, A. H., Anam Ousama, A. (2014). An Islamic perspective on the true and fair view override principle.Journal of Islamic Accounting and Business Research,5(2), 142-157. Shove, E. (2010). Beyond the ABC: climate change policy and theories of social change.Environment and planning A,42(6), 1273-1285. Wallenburg, C. M., Schffler, T. (2014). The interplay of relational governance and formal control in horizontal alliances: a social contract perspective.Journal of Supply Chain Management,50(2), 41-58. 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Rock ; pop Essay Example For Students

Rock ; pop Essay What has the power to make you get up and move, to both inspire you and enrage you? Rock, rap, pop, country, and blues are all forms of this phenomenon we call music. Music has been a part of each and everyone of our lives. How often have you heard a song and it brought you back to a place in your past, or reminded you of someone? Chances are you were listening to music that fell into one of the two most popular categories, rock or pop. Both rock and pop can be considered movements in society, however the motivation for these movements were on the opposite ends of the spectrum. Also another thing that they have in common is that once the artists are famous the may both have a tendency to fall off the deep end. This may entail spending thousands of dollars on drugs and alcohol. Eventually many of both pop and rock stars end up in rehab. Even though the lines between rock and pop can be blurred at times there are many distinct differences. One of the most profound differences is the way both types of music came about. Rock and roll started back in the early 60s. It was a time when the Vietnam war had just begun. Steppenwolf, The Beetles, Jimi Hendrix, and The Doors all were sending out soulful messages through their music. They were singing about war, drugs, and love instead of war. There lyrics were from the heart. It provoked feelings of rage for the government, and love for one another. The rock and roll movement began out of pent up energy that had to be released in an positive manner. It had very pure, honest intentions. On the other hand pop, short for popular, music was contrived from the beginning. It too had its beginnings in the 60s starting with the Monkeys. Four guys were brought together by some corporate bigwigs to create an American version of the Beetles. Little did the public know that they were not even singing their own songs. They were lip-singing the whole time. But, they managed to top the charts and make young girls faint. That could be considered the first pop music. Another major difference between rock and pop groups are the way they get started. Pop groups are usually formed by record companies with preconceived notions of what kind of image they want the artist to have. Basically the artists sell them selves to the record label. This gives the record company the freedom to market their group any way they please. A new phenomenon that has taken the pop world by storm are the boy bands. Boy bands are groups of four or five guys that is marketed by the record labels to the ten to sixteen year old demographic. These pop stars start at the top and stay there as long as that have the record companies backing. Rock bands have a much harder path to the top. Many bands start in garages and local bars, playing for anyone who will listen.Just getting signed to a label may require many years of hard work sending out demos and then getting rejected. The reason why is that most rock artists will not sell out. This would allow the record companies to take c reative control of the artists music. It all boils down to this, pop music is all about corporate culture and rock is the real thing. Lyrical content is another major difference between rock and pop. Pop music is full of bubble gum lyrics that are usually of a shallow nature. Pop artist sing about puppy love and crushes. The topics they sing about are very light in content. Very rarely do they write their own music. That job is left up to professional song writers. The only responsibility of the pop artists is to look good and be a puppet for the record companies. Rock songs are of a deeper level. The artists usually write their own lyrics and music. Nothing is off limits for them to write about, whether it be of a political nature, abortion, suicide, or drugs. Yes, they also write about being in love, but also about the betrayal and the hurt that comes from relationships. The bottom line is that pop music is happy and optimistic, while rock is cynical and pessimistic. .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23 , .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23 .postImageUrl , .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23 , .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23:hover , .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23:visited , .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23:active { border:0!important; } .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23:active , .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23 .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ue5dfd1027cc905043be221941f0e6d23:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Computers And Automation EssayRock bands have lasting ability while pop groups are here today, gone tomorrow. A pop group that lasts five years is considered to have had a long career. On the other hand twenty-five years is not unusual for a rock band. Aerosmith and The Rolling Stones have been around for at least that long and are still going strong. Imagining where N*Stink, as I so affectionately call them, will be extinct. Rock and roll will live forever, while pop will die a slow fading death. Rock and pop music will continue to have its similarities, but mainly differences. There will always be a debate on which is better, but the bottom line is that rock is real and from the heart, while pop is contrived and empty of substance. Rock and roll will never die!Rock and Roll Will Never DieComparison Essay Crystal BeattyENC 1101- 6:3030 September 2001

Blair Witch Project Movie Review Essay Research free essay sample

Blair Witch Project Movie Review Essay, Research Paper # 8220 ; In October of # 8216 ; 94, three pupil film makers disappear in the forests of Burkittsville, MD, while hiting a documental # 8230 ; a twelvemonth subsequently their footage was found. # 8221 ; With that debut, Daniel Myrick and Eduardo Sanchez launched what was one of the most scarey and most successful horror films in the last 20 old ages. The Blair Witch rises above typical horror film genre and brings about something really rare, a horror movie with truly scaring minutes. This film tells a narrative of three high school pupils, Heather ( Heather Donahue ) Josh, ( Josh Leonard ) and Mike ( Mike Williams ) who set out to hit a docudrama about the well known fable of the Blair Witch. The enchantress is said to stalk the forests and is responsible for a series of child slayings in the 1940 # 8217 ; s. They begin by questioning the townsfolk, who warn them of the fables and dismaying narratives that relate. We will write a custom essay sample on Blair Witch Project Movie Review Essay Research or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Then, they venture off into the forests to look into the fable, with merely a few cameras, a DAT machine, and a few minimum supplies to acquire by for the 3 twenty-four hours jaunt. Shot over 6 yearss and darks, all the footage is filmed by the three pupils on the equipment they are transporting. The movie had no books, and each character reacted to the state of affairs the manager placed them in. With the whole movie improvised, T he characters become existent, and the narrative line becomes more awful, go forthing the spectator on the border of his place. The audience frights for the safety of the pupils, even though it has already been established that the three neer return place. The Blair Witch Project, succeeds in doing a good horror movie without blood baths, determined slayers, or the Scream Queen, Jamie Lee Curtis. The viewing audiences see small, leting them to conceive of what it is that makes the noise # 8217 ; s in the forest each dark, and who it is that places the stones in three hemorrhoids right outside their collapsible shelter. Make no error, the movie has its defects. It is merely 80 proceedingss long and retarding forces in the center when the three have nil left to make but quibble between eachother and dislocation. And the camera motion can present a job to those viewing audiences who are prone to gesture illness. Finally, a major item that wraps up the stoping is merely mentioned one time in the really get downing. If you aren # 8217 ; t paying attending, you won # 8217 ; t understand when the screen turns black. It is easy to acquire brush up in this movie, and to believe the characters are existent people in a existent state of affairs. It has done something that no movie has since the Excorcist, touching something in everyone, that remain creepy in the procedure. Horror films this good, this different, and this realistic are excessively few, and far between.

Philippine History Essay Example

Philippine History Essay THE ADVENT OF EUROPEAN DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST FERDINAND MAGELLAN * A Portuguese explorer who is known as the first circumnavigator of the Earth. * Born in 1480 at Saborosa/Sabrosa in Villa Real, Province of Traz os Montes, Portugal. * His first stint as a maritime explorer began in 1505 when he offered his services to be a part of Francisco d’Almeida’s expedition. * Ferdinand Magellan renounced his citizenship and offered his services to the King of Spain. TREATY OF TORDESILLAS * The division of the world was ordered by Pope Alexander VI as a result of the unending â€Å"sea rivalry† between Portugal and Spain. Important provisions of the treaty: * At a distance of 370 degrees west of the Cape Verde Islands, the treaty provided an imaginary line drawn from north to south. All lands that will be discovered east of this imaginary line would be owned by Portugal and those on the west would belong to Spain. * If Spain discovers lands that are within the demarcation line of Portugal, they should be turned over to the latter. On the other hand, if Portugal discovered lands that are not within their demarcation line, they should be turned over to Spain. Pope Alexander VI, being a Spaniard, ordered that no Portuguese ships shall be sent to lands belonging to Spain even for the purpose of trade and commerce. FERDINAND MAGELLAN’S SHIPS TRINIDAD * Flagship of the expedition * Commanded by Ferdinand Magellan CONCEPCION * Commanded by Gaspar de Quesada VICTORIA * Commanded by Luis de Mendoza SANTIAGO * Commanded by Juan Serrano SAN ANTONIO * Commanded by Juan de Cartagena FERDINAND MAGELLAN’S EXPEDITION First Event * Magellan was given hundreds of Spanish crews to help him fulfill his expedition goals. We will write a custom essay sample on Philippine History specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Philippine History specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Philippine History specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer They heard Mass in the Church of Santa Lucia de la Victoria (Santa Maria de la Victoria de Triana) and the captain of his ships as well as their crews took an oath of allegiance to Magellan as their commander-in-chief. Second Event * On September 20, 1519, Ferdinand Magellan and the rest of his men began their expedition. The ships sailed down from Quadalquivir River to San Lucar de Barrameda. After two months of difficult voyage, hardship, and hunger, the expedition reached what is now Pernambuco in Brazil. From here, Magellan continued his voyage to Rio de Janeiro and reached Rio de la Plata in February, 1520. Third Event * A mutiny was staged by Ferdinand Magellan’s crew, namely Quesada (Concepcion ship), Mendoza (Victoria ship), and Cartagena (San Antonio ship). Magellan managed to stop their attempt to take control of the whole expedition and eventually punished the perpetrators of the mutiny. Fourth Event * The Santiago was totally wrecked due to the extreme condition and vastness of the Pacific Ocean. On October 21, 1520, a strait was discovered by Ferdinand Magellan presently called the Strait of Magellan. Fifth Event * In March, 1521, Ferdinand Magellan reached the Ladrones Islands. They spent some time to rest and procure fresh food and water. Ladrones means â€Å"thieves† in Spanish. THE REDISCOVERY OF THE PHILIPPINES * On March 17, 1521, Magellan and his men saw the mountains of what is now called Samar (Agoncillo and Mangahas, 2010). * Magellan and his men made their first landfall on a Philippine island called Homonhon on March 18, 1521. * They continued their navigation and reached the islet of Limasawa. It was governed by Rajah Kulambu. * Magellan and Rajah Kulambu secured a relationship and eventually sealed their friendship through a blood compact called the sanduguan on March 29, 1521. The first mass in the Philippines was celebrated on March 31, 1521 on the coast of Limasawa which was officiated by Fr. Pedro de Valderrama. * Magellan, together with Rajah Kulambu, reached the island of Cebu on April 7, 1521. Rajah Humabon (ruler of Cebu) accepted Ferdinand Magellan in his island. * Rajah Humabon’s Christian name was Carlos, in honor of th e King of Spain (Charles/Carlos). His wife Hara Amihan was baptized under the name of Juana, in honor of King Charles’ mother (Johanna). * Ferdinand Magellan gave Juana an image of the Infant Jesus as a gift for her baptism. THE BATTLE OF MACTAN Conflict between the two rajahs sparked the famous Battle of Mactan. It was a conflict between Rajah Sula and Rajah Lapu-Lapu, both from Mactan Island. * While Magellan was in Cebu, Rajah Sula went there and asked for Magellan’s help to wage a war against Rajah Lapu-Lapu. * From Cebu, he sailed for Mactan with 1,000 Cebuano warriors and 60 Spaniards. * Rajah Lapu-Lapu outnumbered Magellan’s force. He was also killed by Rajah Lapu-Lapu’s men. SIGNIFICANCE OF MAGELLAN’S EXPEDITION * It proved that the Earth is round. * It also pioneered the use of the sea route rather than the land route. The voyagers realized how vast the Pacific Ocean was. * The beauty and richness of the Philippines captured the interest a nd attention of the European colonizers. VILLALOBOS EXPEDITION * Headed by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos * His expedition started on November 1, 1542 and reached Mindanao three months later. * Villalobos ordered his men to plant corn in order to avoid starvation. However, the crop failed to feed them so Villalobos sent Bernardo de la Torre to Tandaya to get some food. * As a sign of gratitude, he named the islands Samar and Leyte Felipinas in honor of Prince Philip of Spain. Villalobos left the Philippines and sailed for the Moluccas Island but was captured by the Portuguese sailors. LEGAZPI EXPEDITION * Headed by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi * The expedition was comprised of four ships and 380 crews. * Legazpi started to sail on November 21, 1564 at the Mexican port. He reached Cebu in February of 1565. * After reaching Cebu, Legazpi went to Cibabao (Leyte) then to Samar. Legazpi sealed his friendship with some of the local chieftains in that area through a blood compact. THE PHILIPPINES UNDER SPANISH COLONIAL RULE – PART I Reduccion System * A territory under the immediate political c ontrol of a state. A colony is divided into province, pueblo, barangay. * A province is composed of a number of pueblos. * A pueblo is composed of a number of barangays. Central Government * The power comes from the King of Spain. * The representative of the King of Spain in the Philippines is the Spanish Governor-General. * Two branches: Executive Controlled by the Spanish Governor-General. Judiciary Controlled by the Real/Royal Audiencia, lower court, and the Spanish Governor-General. * There was no legislative branch of government under the Spanish occupation because all laws came from Spain through royal decrees. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1502-1572) First Spanish Governor-General in the Philippines. Governor-General * Implement all the directives and orders of the King of Spain. * Serve as the chief of the Spanish army to the Philippines. * Manage and command the Spanish army to protect the colony. * Appoint and remove government officials. * Manage and control any government office. * Implement and execute justice; pardoning power. * The most powerful political official in the Philippines during the Spanish occupation. * Representative of the King of Spain as the head of the colonial government. His tenure of power depends on the confidence of the Spanish Crown. * His executive power is absolute; on the other hand, his judicial and legislative powers are limited. Real/Royal Audiencia * This refers to the highest court of justice in the Philippines during the Spanish occupation. * This is equivalent to the Supreme Court of the Philippines. * It was established in 1584 (Manila). * Santiago de Vera – first president * It was mandated to interpret all laws. * It had the authority to solve cases pertaining to human rights violation. * It was tasked to audit all the expenses of the colonial government. It also had a legislative function. The Real/Royal Audiencia had the power, together with the Governor-General, to enact laws known as the Autos Acordados. Encomienda * This involved the land, the crops that can be found in it, and the people living on it. * The encomienda system was an old practice in Spain wherein the King, in an effort to recognize the good deeds, services, and loyalty of his officers and men awarded a piece of land. * Those who received the encomiendas were called encomienderos. Functions of Encomiendero * Protect the people from any kind of attacks organized by armed groups. Take care of the general welfare of the people. * Maintain peace and order within his encomienda. * Help the Spanish missionaries spread the teachings of Christianity to the indigenous people. * Collect taxes from the people living within his encomienda. Local Government Provincial Government * The type of local government which replaced the encomienda system. * Occupied the largest unit of the local government. * Two types: alcadia and corregimiento alcadia * These were provinces whose inhabitants had accepted the Spanish rule; â€Å"peaceful† * Ruled and governed by alcalde mayor lcalde mayor * Performed executive and judicial functions. * He was appointed by the Spanish Governor-General * He was mandated by the Spanish Governor-General to enforce laws in his provinces and collect taxes. * He had the power to dispense justice. * He was given the privilege to engage in trade * â€Å"Indulto de comercio† was granted as a privilege because this position received only a small salary. * However, this privilege was abused and subsequently was abolished in 1844. * In 1886, the executive function was also stripped from the alcalde mayor because of reported abuses of power. With this, the executive function was transferred to the civil governor. corregimiento * These were provinces whose inhabitants had resistance to Spanish rule. * Also known as political-military districts. * Ruled and governed by corregidor. Municipal Government * Each pueblo/town was ruled and controlled by gobernadorcillo, also called as capitan * Chief enforcer of the law and tax collector of his town. * The highest government position given to a Filipino native provided that he/she is a part of the group called principalia * Had a one-year term. * He had the responsibility to manage infrastructure (i. . roads and bridges) construction in his town. * He also had the function to maintain peace and order within his town. City Government * Also called as ayuntamiento * Requirements * Strategically located and commercially and politically important * Center of commerce, politics, faith, and culture * The first city to be created was Cebu in 1565. It was established by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. * The second city founded by Legazpi was Manila in 1571. * Governed by two mayors, 12 councilors, one chief of police, and one secretary. Barangay/Barrio * Barangay – the smallest unit of government Governed by former datus * Datus = cabeza de barangay * This position was hereditary in the beginning, but later became an appointive and elective office. * He can also serve for one year. * His main duty was to collect taxes or tributes within his jurisdiction. * He was tasked to manage and keep the census of his barrio mates. * Cabeza de barangays did not receive any salary and yet they were responsible to turn in 100% collection of taxes. Residencia and Visita * It was a process to check if there were abuses of powers committed by the Spanish government officials. It deterred government officials from committing abuses and injuring the rights of others. Residencia * It was conducted by the incoming Spanish Governor-General. * The result of the investigation shall be sent to Spain for further evaluation and report. Visita * The investigation was conducted clandestinely by a visitador-general. * The visitador-general was sent from Sp ain and might come anytime within the official’s term, without any previous notice. THE PHILIPPINES UNDER SPANISH COLONIAL RULE – PART II The Tribute * It was officially introduced in 1570. Church tribute = sanctorum * Filipinos between 16 to 60 years of age were entitled to be taxed in cash or in kind. * Payment of taxes is tantamount to the impression that an individual recognized the power of the King of Spain. Other Taxes * Diezmos prediales – a kind of tax that was comprised of one-tenth of the produce of the land * Donativo de Zamboanga – a kind of tax that was introduced in 1635 in order to invade Jolo, Sulu * Vinta – a kind of tax that was paid by the people of Luzon The Bandala System * The Filipinos became the vassals of Spain. This refers to the obligation of Filipino farmers to sell their products to the government at a minimum price. * The abuses were reported to the King of Spain and it was eventually abolished in 1782 in order to avoid revolution from the Filipino farmers. Polo y Servicios * It is a form of forced labor. * Filipino men who were 16 to 60 years of age had the obligation to render community service in the span of 40 days. * The title of Filipino men who underwent polo is polistas. * One could be exempted from polo by paying the falla. Kasama System hacienda Large land estates that were owned by the Spanish friars Inquilino – group of people who took care of the friars’ haciendas * poor relatives of the inquilinos * tilled and cleaned the land GALLEON TRADE * The Spanish government authorities supervised and managed all its trade operations. * High ranking officials of the State, Spanish friars, crew of the galleons were only allowed to engage in this trade. * In order to maximize profit, the King of Spain imposed monetary restrictions on trade. * The Galleon Trade also served as a means of transportation of the following: * Funds from the King of Spain * Directive/orders of the King of Spain Spanish passengers such as friars, government officials, and travelers/tourists from Mexico and Spain Boleta * A ticket entitling an ordinary trader to engage in the galleon trade. * A boleta was normally issued to the Governor-General, clergy, members of the Real/Royal Audiencia and their friends, and to the widows of Spanish officials. * It can be sold to anyone at a higher price. * Obras Pias are funds that came from the donations to the Church. The Tobacco Monopoly * It was established by Governor-General Basco on March 1, 1782 . * Its main purpose was to boost up the government’s revenues. Under this monopoly, the provinces like Cagayan Valley, Ilocos, Nueva Ecija, and Marinduque were mandated by the government to plant tobacco in their agricultural lands. * This was successful in increasing government revenues. * This also paved the way for the development of the tobacco industry in the Philippines. * The reported abuses committed by the Spanish government officials led to its abolition in 1882 by Governor-General Primo de Rivera. Economic Society of Friends of the Country * Sociedad Economic de Amigo del Pais * It was established on May 6, 1781. * F ive sections: Factories and manufactures * Education * Natural history * Domestic and foreign commerce * Agriculture and rural economy Royal Company of the Philippines * Real Compana de Filipinas * It was established by Governor-General Basco in 1785 with a total capital amounting to P8,000,000. * The main aim of this company was to establish direct trade relations with the Philippines to Spain and to develop the former’s natural resources. * In accordance with the company’s charter, the Philippines was mandated to set aside four percent of its profits for agricultural development.

Historical Development of Nursing Essay Example

Historical Development of Nursing Essay Historical Development of Nursing Timeline Create a 700- to 1,050-word timeline paper of the historical development of nursing science, starting with Florence Nightingale and continuing to the present. Format the timeline however you wish, but the word count and assignment requirements must be met. Include the following in your timeline: †¢ Explain the historical development of nursing science by citing specific years, theories, theorists, and events in the history of nursing. Explain the relationship between nursing science and the profession. †¢ Include the influences on nursing science of other disciplines, such as philosophy, religion, education, anthropology, the social sciences, and psychology. Prepare to discuss your timeline with your Learning Team or in class. Format all references consistent with APA guidelines. Copyright  © 2013 Penn Nursing Science, University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing http://www. nursing. upenn. edu/nhhc/Pages/AmericanNursingIntroduct ion. aspx http://www. nursing. penn. edu/nhhc/Welcome%20Page%20Content/American%20Nursing. pdf Nursing Theories. The Base for Professional Nursing Practice, Sixth Edition Chapter 2: Nursing Theory and Clinical Practice ISBN: 9780135135839  Author: Julia B. GeorgeRN, PhD copyright  © 2011  Pearson Education lorence Nightingale believed that the force for healing resides within the human being and that, if the environment is appropriately supportive, humans will seek to heal themselves. Her 13 canons indicate the areas of environment of concern to nursing. These are ventilation and warming, health of houses (pure air, pure water, efficient drainage, cleanliness, and light), petty management (today known as continuity of care), noise, variety, taking food, what food, bed and bedding, light, cleanliness of rooms and walls, personal cleanliness, chattering hopes and advices, and observation of the sick. Hildegard E. Peplau focused on the interpersonal relationship between the nurse and the patient. The three phases of this relationship are orientation, working, and termination. The relationship is initiated by the patient’s felt need and termination occurs when the need is met. Both the nurse and the patient grow as a result of their interaction. Virginia Henderson first defined nursing as doing for others what they lack the strength, will, or knowledge to do for themselves and then identified 14 components of care. These components provide a guide to identifying areas in which a person may lack the strength, will, or knowledge to meet personal needs. We will write a custom essay sample on Historical Development of Nursing specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Historical Development of Nursing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Historical Development of Nursing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer They include breathing, eating and drinking, eliminating, moving, sleeping and resting, dressing and undressing appropriately, maintaining body temperature, keeping clean and protecting the skin, avoiding dangers and injury to others, communicating, worshiping, working, playing, and learning. Dorothea E. Orem identified three theories of self-care, self-care deficit, and nursing systems. The ability of the person to meet daily requirements is known as self-care, and carrying out those activities is self-care agency. Parents serve as dependent care agents for their children. The ability to provide self-care is influenced by basic conditioning factors including but not limited to age, gender, and developmental state. Self-care needs are partially determined by the self-care requisites, which are categorized as universal (air, water, food, elimination, activity and rest, solitude and social interaction, hazard prevention, function within social groups), developmental, and health deviation (needs arising from injury or illness and from efforts to treat the injury or illness). The total demands created by the self-care requisites are identified as therapeutic self-care demand. When the therapeutic self-care demand exceeds self-care agency, a self-care deficit exists, and nursing is needed. Based on the needs, the nurse designs nursing systems that are wholly compensatory (the nurse provides all needed care), partly compensatory (the nurse and the patient provide care together), or supportive-educative (the nurse provides needed support and education for the patient to exercise self-care). Dorothy E. Johnson stated that nursing’s area of concern is the behavioral system that consists of seven subsystems. The subsystems are attachment or affiliative, dependency, ingestive, eliminative, sexual, aggressive, and achievement. The behaviors for each of the subsystems occur as a result of the drive, set, choices, and goal of the subsystem. The purpose of the behaviors is to reduce tensions and keep the behavioral system in balance. Ida Jean Orlando described a disciplined nursing process. Her process is initiated by the patient’s behavior. This behavior engenders a reaction in the nurse, described as an automatic perception, thought, or feeling. The nurse shares the reaction with the patient, identifying it as the nurse’s perception, thought, or feeling, and seeking validation of the accuracy of the reaction. Once the nurse and the patient have agreed on the immediate need that led to the patient’s behavior and to the action to be taken by the nurse to meet that need, the nurse carries out a deliberative action. Any action taken by the nurse for reasons other than meeting the patient’s immediate need is an automatic action. Lydia E. Hall believed that persons over the age of 16 who were past the acute stage of illness required a different focus for their care than during the acute stage. She described the circles of care, core, and cure. Activities in the care circle belong solely to nursing and involve bodily care and comfort. Activities in the core circle are shared with all members of the health care team and involve the person and therapeutic use of self. Hall believed the drive to recovery must come from within the person. Activities in the cure circle also are shared with other members of the health care team and may include the patient’s family. The cure circle focuses on the disease and the medical care. Faye G. Abdellah sought to change the focus of care from the disease to the patient and thus proposed patient-centered approaches to care. She identified 21 nursing problems, or areas vital to the growth and functioning of humans that require support from nurses when persons are for some reason limited in carrying out the activities needed to provide such growth. These areas are hygiene and comfort, activity (including exercise, rest, and sleep), safety, body mechanics, oxygen, nutrition, elimination, fluid and electrolyte balance, recognition of physiological responses to disease, regulatory mechanisms, sensory functions, emotions, interrelatedness of emotions and illness, communication, interpersonal relationships, spiritual goals, therapeutic environment, individuality, optimal goals, use of community resources, and role of society. Ernestine Wiedenbach proposed a prescriptive theory that involves the nurse’s central purpose, prescription to fulfill that purpose, and the realities that influence the ability to fulfill the central purpose (the nurse, the patient, the goal, the means, and the framework or environment). Nursing involves the identification of the patient’s need for help, the ministration of help, and validation that the efforts made were indeed helpful. Her principles of helping indicate the nurse should look for patient behaviors that are not consistent with what is expected, should continue helping efforts in spite of encountering difficulties, and should recognize personal limitations and seek help from others as needed. Nursing actions may be reflex or spontaneous and based on sensations, conditioned or automatic and based on perceptions, impulsive and based on assumptions, or deliberate or responsible and based on realization, insight, design, and decision that involves discussion and joint planning with the patient. Joyce Travelbee was concerned with the interpersonal process between the professional nurse and that nurse’s client, whether an individual, family, or community. The functions of the nurse–client, or human-to-human, relationship are to prevent or cope with illness or suffering and to find meaning in illness or suffering. This relationship requires a disciplined, intellectual approach, with the nurse employing a therapeutic use of self. The five phases of the human-to-human relationship are encounter, identities, empathy, sympathy, and rapport. Myra Estrin Levine described adaptation as the process by which conservation is achieved, with the purpose of conservation being integrity, or preservation of the whole of the person. Adaptation is based on past experiences of effective responses (historicity), the use of responses specific to the demands being made (specificity), and more than one level of response (redundancy). Adaptation seeks the best fit between the person and the environment. The principles of conservation deal with conservation of energy, structural integrity, personal integrity, and social integrity of the individual. Imogene M. King presented both a systems-based conceptual framework of personal, interpersonal, and social systems and a theory of goal attainment. The concepts of the theory of goal attainment are interaction, perception, communication, transaction, self, role, stress, growth and development, time, and personal space. The nurse and the client usually meet as strangers. Each brings to this meeting perceptions and judgments about the situation and the other; each acts and then reacts to the other’s action. The reactions lead to interaction, which, when effective, leads to transaction or movement toward mutually agreed-on goals. She emphasizes that both the nurse and the patient bring important knowledge and information to this goal-attainment process. Martha E. Rogers identified the basic science of nursing as the Science of Unitary Human Beings. The human being is a whole, not a collection of parts. She presented the human being and the environment as energy fields that are integral with each other. The human being does not have an energy field but is an energy field. These fields can be identified by their pattern, described as a distinguishing characteristic that is perceived as a single wave. These patterns occur in a pandimensional world. Rogers’s principles are resonancy, or continuous change to higher frequency; helicy, or unpredictable movement toward increasing diversity; and integrality, or the continuous mutual process of the human field and the environmental field. Sister Callista Roy proposed the Roy Adaptation Model. The person or group responds to stimuli from the internal or external environment through control processes or coping mechanisms identified as the regulator and cognator (stabilizer and innovator for the group) subsystems. The regulator processes are essentially automatic, while the cognator processes involve perception, learning, judgment, and emotion. The results of the processing by these coping mechanisms are behaviors in one of four modes. These modes are the physiological–physical mode (oxygenation; nutrition; elimination; activity and rest; protection; senses; fluid, electrolyte, and acid–base balance; and endocrine function for individuals and resource adequacy for groups), self-concept–group identity mode, role function mode, and interdependence mode. These behaviors may be either adaptive (promoting the integrity of the human system) or ineffective (not promoting such integrity). The nurse assesses the behaviors in each of the modes and identifies those adaptive behaviors that need support and those ineffective behaviors that require intervention. For each of these behaviors, the nurse then seeks to identify the associated stimuli. The stimulus most directly associated with the behavior is the focal stimulus; all other stimuli that are verified as influencing the behavior are contextual stimuli. Any stimuli that may be influencing the behavior but that have not been verified as doing so are residual stimuli. Once the stimuli are identified, the nurse, in cooperation with the patient, plans and carries out interventions to alter stimuli and support adaptive behaviors. The effectiveness of the actions taken is evaluated. Betty Neuman developed the Neuman Systems Model. Systems have three environments—the internal, the external, and the created environment. Each system, whether an individual or a group, has several structures. The basic structure or core is where the energy resources reside. This core is protected by lines of resistance that in turn are surrounded by the normal line of defense and finally the flexible line of defense. Each of the structures consists of the five variables of physiological, psychological, sociocultural, developmental, and spiritual characteristics. Each variable is influenced by intrapersonal, interpersonal, and extrapersonal factors. The system seeks a state of equilibrium that may be disrupted by stressors. Stressors, either existing or potential, first encounter the flexible line of defense. If the flexible line of defense cannot counteract the stressor, then the normal line of defense is activated. If the normal line of defense is breached, the stressor enters the system and leads to a reaction, associated with the lines of resistance. This reaction is what is usually termed symptoms. If the lines of resistance allow the stressor to reach the core, depletion of energy resources and death are threatened. In the Neuman Systems Model, there are three levels of prevention. Primary prevention occurs before a stressor enters the system and causes a reaction. Secondary prevention occurs in response to the symptoms, and tertiary prevention seeks to support maintenance of stability and to prevent future occurrences. Kathryn E. Barnard’s focus is on the circumstances that enhance the development of the young child. In her Child Health Assessment Interaction Model, the key components are the child, the caregiver, the environment, and the interactions between child and caregiver. Contributions made by the child include temperament and ability to regulate and by the caregiver physical health, mental health, coping, and level of education. The environment includes both animate and inanimate resources. In assessing interaction, the parent is assessed in relation to sensibility to cues, fostering emotional growth, and fostering cognitive growth. The infant is assessed in relation to clarity of cue given and responsiveness to parent. Josephine E. Paterson and Loretta T. Zderad presented humanistic nursing. Humans are seen as becoming through choices, and health is a personal value of more-being and well-being. Humanistic nursing involves dialogue, community, and phenomenologic nursology. Dialogue occurs through meeting the other, relating with the other, being in presence together, and sharing through call and response. Community is the sense of â€Å"we. † Phenomenologic nursology involves the nurse preparing to know another, having intuitive responses to another, learning about the other scientifically, synthesizing information about the other with information already known, and developing a truth that is both uniquely personal and generally applicable. Madeleine M. Leininger provided a guide to the inclusion of culture as a vital aspect of nursing practice. Her Sunrise Model posits that important dimensions of culture and social structure are technology, religion, philosophy, kinship and other related social factors, cultural values and lifeways, politics, law, economics, and education within the context of language and environment. All of these influence care patterns and expressions that impact the health or well-being of individuals, families, groups, and institutions. The diverse health systems include the folk care systems and the professional care systems that are linked by nursing. To provide culture congruent care, nursing decisions and actions should seek to provide culture care preservation or maintenance, culture care accommodation or negotiation, or culture care repatterning or restructuring. Margaret Newman described health as expanding consciousness. Important concepts are consciousness (the information capacity of the system), pattern (movement, diversity, and rhythm of the whole), pattern recognition (identification within the observer of the whole of another), and transformation (change). Health and disease are seen as reflections of the larger whole rather than as different entities. She proposed (with Sime and Corcoran-Perry) the unitary–transformative paradigm in which human beings are viewed as unitary phenomenon. These phenomenon are identified by pattern, and change is unpredictable, toward diversity, and transformative. Stages of disorganization, or choice points, lead to change, and health is the evolving pattern of the whole as the system moves to higher levels of consciousness. The nurse enters into process with a client and does not serve as a problem solver. Jean Watson described nursing as human science and human care. Her clinical caritas processes include practicing loving-kindness and equanimity within a context of caring consciousness; being authentically present and enabling and sustaining the deep belief system and subjective life world of self and one-being-cared-for; cultivating one’s own spiritual practice and transpersonal self, developing and sustaining helping-trusting in an authentic caring relationship; being present to and supportive of the expression of positive and negative feelings as a connection with the deeper spirit of self and the one-being-cared-for; creatively using self and all ways of knowing as a part of the caring process to engage in artistry of caring-healing practices; engaging in a genuine teaching-learning experience that attends to unity of being and meaning while attempting to stay within other’s frame of reference; creating healing environments at all levels, physical as well as nonphysical, within a subtle environment of energy and consciousness, whereby the potentials of wholeness, beauty, comfort, dignity, and peace are enhanced; assisting with basic needs, with an intentional caring consciousness, to potentiate alignment of mind/body/spirit, wholeness, and unity of being in all aspects of care; tending to both embodied spirit and evolving spiritual emergence; opening and attending to spiritual-mysterious and existential dimensions of one’s own life-death; and soul care for self and the one-being-cared-for. These caritas processes occur within a transpersonal caring relationship and a caring occasion and caring moment as the nurse and other come together and share with each other. The transpersonal caring relationship seeks to provide mental and spiritual growth for both participants while seeking to restore or improve the harmony and unity within the personhood of the other. Rosemarie Rizzo Parse developed the theory of Humanbecoming within the simultaneity paradigm that views human beings as developing meaning through freedom to choose and as more than and different from a sum of parts. Her practice methodology has three dimensions, each with a related process. The first is illuminating meaning, or explicating, or making clear through talking about it, what was, is, and will be. The second is synchronizing rhythms, or dwelling with or being immersed with the process of connecting and separating within the rhythms of the exchange between the human and the universe. The third is mobilizing transcendence, or moving beyond or moving toward what is envisioned, the moment to what has not yet occurred. In the theory of Humanbecoming, the nurse is an interpersonal guide, with the responsibility for decision making (or making of choices) residing in the client. The nurse provides support but not counseling. However, the traditional role of teaching does fall within illuminating meaning, and serving as a change agent is congruent with mobilizing transcendence. Helen C. Erickson, Evelyn M. Tomlin, and Mary Ann P. Swain presented the theory of Modeling and Role-Modeling. Both modeling and role-modeling involve an art and a science. Modeling requires the nurse to seek an understanding of the client’s view of the world. The art of modeling involves the use of empathy in developing this understanding. The science of modeling involves the use of the nurse’s knowledge in analyzing the information collected to create the model. Role-modeling seeks to facilitate health. The art of role-modeling lies in individualizing the facilitations, while the science lies in the use of the nurse’s theoretical knowledge base to plan and implement care. The aims of intervention are to build trust, promote the client’s positive orientation of self, promote the client’s perception of being in control, promote the client’s strengths, and set mutual health-directed goals. The client has self-care knowledge about what his needs are and self-care resources to help meet these needs and takes self-care action to use the resources to meet the needs. In addition, a major motivation for human behavior is the drive for affiliated individuation, or having a personal identity while being connected to others. The individual’s ability to mobilize resources is identified as adaptive potential. Adaptive potential may be identified as adaptive equilibrium (a nonstress state in which resources are utilized appropriately), maladaptive equilibrium (a nonstress state in which resource utilization is placing one or more subsystems in jeopardy), arousal (a stress state in which the client is having difficulty mobilizing resources), or impoverishment (a stress state in which resources are diminished or depleted). Interventions differ according to the adaptive potential. Those in adaptive equilibrium can be encouraged to continue and may require only facilitation of their self-care actions. Those in maladaptive equilibrium present the challenge of seeing no reason to change since they are in equilibrium. Here motivation strategies to seek to change are needed. Those in arousal are best supported by actions that facilitate change and support individuation; these are likely to include teaching, guidance, direction, and other assistance. Those in impoverishment have strong affiliation needs, need their internal strengths promoted, and need to have resources provided. Nola J. Pender developed the Health Promotion Model (revised) with the goal of achieving outcomes of health-promoting behavior. Areas identified to help understand personal choices made in relation to health-promoting behavior include perceived benefits of action, perceived barriers to action, perceived self-efficacy (or ability to carry out the action), activity-related affect, interpersonal influences, situation influences, commitment to a plan of action, and immediate competing demands and preferences. Patricia Benner described expert nursing practice and identified five stages of skill acquisition as novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient, and expert. She discusses a number of concepts in relation to these stages, including agency, assumptions, expectations and set, background meaning, caring, clinical forethought, clinical judgment, clinical knowledge, clinical reasoning, clinical transitions, common meanings, concern, coping, skill acquisition, domains of practice, embodied intelligence, embodied knowledge, emotions, ethical judgment, experience, graded qualitative distinctions, intuition, knowing the patient, maxims, paradigm cases and personal knowledge, reasoning-in-transition, social embeddedness, stress, temporality, thinking-in-action, and unplanned practices. Juliet Corbin and Anselm L. Strauss developed the Chronic Illness Trajectory Framework, in which they describe the course of illness and the actions taken to shape that course. The phases of the framework are pretrajectory, trajectory onset, stable, unstable, acute, crisis, comeback, downward, and dying. A trajectory projection is one’s personal vision of the illness, and a trajectory scheme is the plan of actions to shape the course of the illness, control associated symptoms, and handle disability. Important also are one’s biography or life story and one’s everyday life activities (similar to activities of daily living). Anne Boykin and Savina Schoenhofer present nursing as caring in a grand theory that may be used in combination with other theories. Persons are caring by virtue of being human; are caring, moment to moment; are whole and complete in the moment; and are already complete while growing in completeness. Personhood is the process of living grounded in caring and is enhanced through nurturing relationships. Nursing as a discipline is a being, knowing, living, and valuing response to a social call. As a profession, nursing is based on a social call and uses a body of knowledge to respond to that call. The focus of nursing is nurturing persons living in caring and growing in caring. This nurturing occurs in the nursing situation, or the lived experience shared between the nurse and the nursed, in which personhood is enhanced. The call for nursing is not based on a need or a deficit and thus focuses on helping the other celebrate the fullness of being rather than seeking to fix something. Boykin and Schoenhofer encourage the use of storytelling to make evident the service of nursing. Katharine Kolcaba developed a comfort theory in which she describes comfort, comfort care, comfort measures, and comfort needs as well as health-seeking behavior, institutional integrity, and intervening variables. She speaks of comfort as physical, psychospiritual, environmental, and sociocultural and describes technical comfort measures, coaching for comfort, and comfort food for the soul. Ramona Mercer describes the process of becoming a mother in the four stages of commitment, attachment, and preparation; acquaintance, learning, and physical restoration; moving toward a new normal; and achievement of the maternal identity. The stages occur with the three nested living environments of family and friends, community, and society at large. Afaf Meleis, in her theory of transitions, identifies four types of transitions: developmental, situational, health–illness, and organizational. Properties of the transition experience include awareness, engagement, change and difference, time span, critical points, and events. Personal conditions include meanings, cultural beliefs and attitudes, socioeconomic status, and preparation and knowledge. Community conditions include family support, information available, health care resources, and role models. Process indicators are feeling connected, interacting, location, and being situated and developing confidence and coping. Outcome indicators include mastery and fluid integrative processes. Merle H. Mishel describes uncertainty in illness with the three major themes of antecedents of uncertainty, appraisal of uncertainty, and coping with uncertainty. Antecedents of uncertainty are the stimuli frame, including symptom pattern, event familiarity, and event congruence; cognitive capacity or informational processing ability; and structure providers, such as education, social support, and credible authorities. Appraisal of uncertainty includes both inference (use of past experience to evaluate an event) and illusion (creating beliefs from uncertainty with a positive outlook). Coping with uncertainty includes danger, opportunity, coping, and adaptation. The Reconceptualized Uncertainty in Illness Theory adds self-organization and probabilistic thinking and changes the goal from return to previous level of functioning to growth to a new value system. Each of these models or theories will be applied to clinical practice with the following case study: May Allenski, an 84-year-old White female, had emergency femoral-popliteal bypass surgery two days ago. She has severe peripheral vascular disease, and a clot blocked 90% of the circulation to her right leg one week ago. The grafts were taken from her left leg, so there are long incisions in each leg. She lives in a small town about 75 miles from the medical center. The initial clotting occurred late on Friday night; she did not see a doctor until Monday. The first physician referred her to a vascular specialist, who then referred her to the medical center. Her 90-year-old husband drove her to the medical center on Tuesday. You anticipate she will be discharged to home on the fourth postoperative day, as is standard procedure. She is learning to transfer to and from bed and toilet to wheelchair. Table 2-1 shows examples of application in clinical practice that are not complete but are intended to provide only a partial example for each. Study of these examples can provide ideas or suggestions for use in clinical practice. Readers are encouraged to develop further detail as appropriate to their practice. Historical Development of Nursing Essay Example Historical Development of Nursing Essay Historical Development of Nursing Timeline Create a 700- to 1,050-word timeline paper of the historical development of nursing science, starting with Florence Nightingale and continuing to the present. Format the timeline however you wish, but the word count and assignment requirements must be met. Include the following in your timeline: †¢ Explain the historical development of nursing science by citing specific years, theories, theorists, and events in the history of nursing. Explain the relationship between nursing science and the profession. †¢ Include the influences on nursing science of other disciplines, such as philosophy, religion, education, anthropology, the social sciences, and psychology. Prepare to discuss your timeline with your Learning Team or in class. Format all references consistent with APA guidelines. Copyright  © 2013 Penn Nursing Science, University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing http://www. nursing. upenn. edu/nhhc/Pages/AmericanNursingIntroduct ion. aspx http://www. nursing. penn. edu/nhhc/Welcome%20Page%20Content/American%20Nursing. pdf Nursing Theories. The Base for Professional Nursing Practice, Sixth Edition Chapter 2: Nursing Theory and Clinical Practice ISBN: 9780135135839  Author: Julia B. GeorgeRN, PhD copyright  © 2011  Pearson Education lorence Nightingale believed that the force for healing resides within the human being and that, if the environment is appropriately supportive, humans will seek to heal themselves. Her 13 canons indicate the areas of environment of concern to nursing. These are ventilation and warming, health of houses (pure air, pure water, efficient drainage, cleanliness, and light), petty management (today known as continuity of care), noise, variety, taking food, what food, bed and bedding, light, cleanliness of rooms and walls, personal cleanliness, chattering hopes and advices, and observation of the sick. Hildegard E. Peplau focused on the interpersonal relationship between the nurse and the patient. The three phases of this relationship are orientation, working, and termination. The relationship is initiated by the patient’s felt need and termination occurs when the need is met. Both the nurse and the patient grow as a result of their interaction. Virginia Henderson first defined nursing as doing for others what they lack the strength, will, or knowledge to do for themselves and then identified 14 components of care. These components provide a guide to identifying areas in which a person may lack the strength, will, or knowledge to meet personal needs. We will write a custom essay sample on Historical Development of Nursing specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Historical Development of Nursing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Historical Development of Nursing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer They include breathing, eating and drinking, eliminating, moving, sleeping and resting, dressing and undressing appropriately, maintaining body temperature, keeping clean and protecting the skin, avoiding dangers and injury to others, communicating, worshiping, working, playing, and learning. Dorothea E. Orem identified three theories of self-care, self-care deficit, and nursing systems. The ability of the person to meet daily requirements is known as self-care, and carrying out those activities is self-care agency. Parents serve as dependent care agents for their children. The ability to provide self-care is influenced by basic conditioning factors including but not limited to age, gender, and developmental state. Self-care needs are partially determined by the self-care requisites, which are categorized as universal (air, water, food, elimination, activity and rest, solitude and social interaction, hazard prevention, function within social groups), developmental, and health deviation (needs arising from injury or illness and from efforts to treat the injury or illness). The total demands created by the self-care requisites are identified as therapeutic self-care demand. When the therapeutic self-care demand exceeds self-care agency, a self-care deficit exists, and nursing is needed. Based on the needs, the nurse designs nursing systems that are wholly compensatory (the nurse provides all needed care), partly compensatory (the nurse and the patient provide care together), or supportive-educative (the nurse provides needed support and education for the patient to exercise self-care). Dorothy E. Johnson stated that nursing’s area of concern is the behavioral system that consists of seven subsystems. The subsystems are attachment or affiliative, dependency, ingestive, eliminative, sexual, aggressive, and achievement. The behaviors for each of the subsystems occur as a result of the drive, set, choices, and goal of the subsystem. The purpose of the behaviors is to reduce tensions and keep the behavioral system in balance. Ida Jean Orlando described a disciplined nursing process. Her process is initiated by the patient’s behavior. This behavior engenders a reaction in the nurse, described as an automatic perception, thought, or feeling. The nurse shares the reaction with the patient, identifying it as the nurse’s perception, thought, or feeling, and seeking validation of the accuracy of the reaction. Once the nurse and the patient have agreed on the immediate need that led to the patient’s behavior and to the action to be taken by the nurse to meet that need, the nurse carries out a deliberative action. Any action taken by the nurse for reasons other than meeting the patient’s immediate need is an automatic action. Lydia E. Hall believed that persons over the age of 16 who were past the acute stage of illness required a different focus for their care than during the acute stage. She described the circles of care, core, and cure. Activities in the care circle belong solely to nursing and involve bodily care and comfort. Activities in the core circle are shared with all members of the health care team and involve the person and therapeutic use of self. Hall believed the drive to recovery must come from within the person. Activities in the cure circle also are shared with other members of the health care team and may include the patient’s family. The cure circle focuses on the disease and the medical care. Faye G. Abdellah sought to change the focus of care from the disease to the patient and thus proposed patient-centered approaches to care. She identified 21 nursing problems, or areas vital to the growth and functioning of humans that require support from nurses when persons are for some reason limited in carrying out the activities needed to provide such growth. These areas are hygiene and comfort, activity (including exercise, rest, and sleep), safety, body mechanics, oxygen, nutrition, elimination, fluid and electrolyte balance, recognition of physiological responses to disease, regulatory mechanisms, sensory functions, emotions, interrelatedness of emotions and illness, communication, interpersonal relationships, spiritual goals, therapeutic environment, individuality, optimal goals, use of community resources, and role of society. Ernestine Wiedenbach proposed a prescriptive theory that involves the nurse’s central purpose, prescription to fulfill that purpose, and the realities that influence the ability to fulfill the central purpose (the nurse, the patient, the goal, the means, and the framework or environment). Nursing involves the identification of the patient’s need for help, the ministration of help, and validation that the efforts made were indeed helpful. Her principles of helping indicate the nurse should look for patient behaviors that are not consistent with what is expected, should continue helping efforts in spite of encountering difficulties, and should recognize personal limitations and seek help from others as needed. Nursing actions may be reflex or spontaneous and based on sensations, conditioned or automatic and based on perceptions, impulsive and based on assumptions, or deliberate or responsible and based on realization, insight, design, and decision that involves discussion and joint planning with the patient. Joyce Travelbee was concerned with the interpersonal process between the professional nurse and that nurse’s client, whether an individual, family, or community. The functions of the nurse–client, or human-to-human, relationship are to prevent or cope with illness or suffering and to find meaning in illness or suffering. This relationship requires a disciplined, intellectual approach, with the nurse employing a therapeutic use of self. The five phases of the human-to-human relationship are encounter, identities, empathy, sympathy, and rapport. Myra Estrin Levine described adaptation as the process by which conservation is achieved, with the purpose of conservation being integrity, or preservation of the whole of the person. Adaptation is based on past experiences of effective responses (historicity), the use of responses specific to the demands being made (specificity), and more than one level of response (redundancy). Adaptation seeks the best fit between the person and the environment. The principles of conservation deal with conservation of energy, structural integrity, personal integrity, and social integrity of the individual. Imogene M. King presented both a systems-based conceptual framework of personal, interpersonal, and social systems and a theory of goal attainment. The concepts of the theory of goal attainment are interaction, perception, communication, transaction, self, role, stress, growth and development, time, and personal space. The nurse and the client usually meet as strangers. Each brings to this meeting perceptions and judgments about the situation and the other; each acts and then reacts to the other’s action. The reactions lead to interaction, which, when effective, leads to transaction or movement toward mutually agreed-on goals. She emphasizes that both the nurse and the patient bring important knowledge and information to this goal-attainment process. Martha E. Rogers identified the basic science of nursing as the Science of Unitary Human Beings. The human being is a whole, not a collection of parts. She presented the human being and the environment as energy fields that are integral with each other. The human being does not have an energy field but is an energy field. These fields can be identified by their pattern, described as a distinguishing characteristic that is perceived as a single wave. These patterns occur in a pandimensional world. Rogers’s principles are resonancy, or continuous change to higher frequency; helicy, or unpredictable movement toward increasing diversity; and integrality, or the continuous mutual process of the human field and the environmental field. Sister Callista Roy proposed the Roy Adaptation Model. The person or group responds to stimuli from the internal or external environment through control processes or coping mechanisms identified as the regulator and cognator (stabilizer and innovator for the group) subsystems. The regulator processes are essentially automatic, while the cognator processes involve perception, learning, judgment, and emotion. The results of the processing by these coping mechanisms are behaviors in one of four modes. These modes are the physiological–physical mode (oxygenation; nutrition; elimination; activity and rest; protection; senses; fluid, electrolyte, and acid–base balance; and endocrine function for individuals and resource adequacy for groups), self-concept–group identity mode, role function mode, and interdependence mode. These behaviors may be either adaptive (promoting the integrity of the human system) or ineffective (not promoting such integrity). The nurse assesses the behaviors in each of the modes and identifies those adaptive behaviors that need support and those ineffective behaviors that require intervention. For each of these behaviors, the nurse then seeks to identify the associated stimuli. The stimulus most directly associated with the behavior is the focal stimulus; all other stimuli that are verified as influencing the behavior are contextual stimuli. Any stimuli that may be influencing the behavior but that have not been verified as doing so are residual stimuli. Once the stimuli are identified, the nurse, in cooperation with the patient, plans and carries out interventions to alter stimuli and support adaptive behaviors. The effectiveness of the actions taken is evaluated. Betty Neuman developed the Neuman Systems Model. Systems have three environments—the internal, the external, and the created environment. Each system, whether an individual or a group, has several structures. The basic structure or core is where the energy resources reside. This core is protected by lines of resistance that in turn are surrounded by the normal line of defense and finally the flexible line of defense. Each of the structures consists of the five variables of physiological, psychological, sociocultural, developmental, and spiritual characteristics. Each variable is influenced by intrapersonal, interpersonal, and extrapersonal factors. The system seeks a state of equilibrium that may be disrupted by stressors. Stressors, either existing or potential, first encounter the flexible line of defense. If the flexible line of defense cannot counteract the stressor, then the normal line of defense is activated. If the normal line of defense is breached, the stressor enters the system and leads to a reaction, associated with the lines of resistance. This reaction is what is usually termed symptoms. If the lines of resistance allow the stressor to reach the core, depletion of energy resources and death are threatened. In the Neuman Systems Model, there are three levels of prevention. Primary prevention occurs before a stressor enters the system and causes a reaction. Secondary prevention occurs in response to the symptoms, and tertiary prevention seeks to support maintenance of stability and to prevent future occurrences. Kathryn E. Barnard’s focus is on the circumstances that enhance the development of the young child. In her Child Health Assessment Interaction Model, the key components are the child, the caregiver, the environment, and the interactions between child and caregiver. Contributions made by the child include temperament and ability to regulate and by the caregiver physical health, mental health, coping, and level of education. The environment includes both animate and inanimate resources. In assessing interaction, the parent is assessed in relation to sensibility to cues, fostering emotional growth, and fostering cognitive growth. The infant is assessed in relation to clarity of cue given and responsiveness to parent. Josephine E. Paterson and Loretta T. Zderad presented humanistic nursing. Humans are seen as becoming through choices, and health is a personal value of more-being and well-being. Humanistic nursing involves dialogue, community, and phenomenologic nursology. Dialogue occurs through meeting the other, relating with the other, being in presence together, and sharing through call and response. Community is the sense of â€Å"we. † Phenomenologic nursology involves the nurse preparing to know another, having intuitive responses to another, learning about the other scientifically, synthesizing information about the other with information already known, and developing a truth that is both uniquely personal and generally applicable. Madeleine M. Leininger provided a guide to the inclusion of culture as a vital aspect of nursing practice. Her Sunrise Model posits that important dimensions of culture and social structure are technology, religion, philosophy, kinship and other related social factors, cultural values and lifeways, politics, law, economics, and education within the context of language and environment. All of these influence care patterns and expressions that impact the health or well-being of individuals, families, groups, and institutions. The diverse health systems include the folk care systems and the professional care systems that are linked by nursing. To provide culture congruent care, nursing decisions and actions should seek to provide culture care preservation or maintenance, culture care accommodation or negotiation, or culture care repatterning or restructuring. Margaret Newman described health as expanding consciousness. Important concepts are consciousness (the information capacity of the system), pattern (movement, diversity, and rhythm of the whole), pattern recognition (identification within the observer of the whole of another), and transformation (change). Health and disease are seen as reflections of the larger whole rather than as different entities. She proposed (with Sime and Corcoran-Perry) the unitary–transformative paradigm in which human beings are viewed as unitary phenomenon. These phenomenon are identified by pattern, and change is unpredictable, toward diversity, and transformative. Stages of disorganization, or choice points, lead to change, and health is the evolving pattern of the whole as the system moves to higher levels of consciousness. The nurse enters into process with a client and does not serve as a problem solver. Jean Watson described nursing as human science and human care. Her clinical caritas processes include practicing loving-kindness and equanimity within a context of caring consciousness; being authentically present and enabling and sustaining the deep belief system and subjective life world of self and one-being-cared-for; cultivating one’s own spiritual practice and transpersonal self, developing and sustaining helping-trusting in an authentic caring relationship; being present to and supportive of the expression of positive and negative feelings as a connection with the deeper spirit of self and the one-being-cared-for; creatively using self and all ways of knowing as a part of the caring process to engage in artistry of caring-healing practices; engaging in a genuine teaching-learning experience that attends to unity of being and meaning while attempting to stay within other’s frame of reference; creating healing environments at all levels, physical as well as nonphysical, within a subtle environment of energy and consciousness, whereby the potentials of wholeness, beauty, comfort, dignity, and peace are enhanced; assisting with basic needs, with an intentional caring consciousness, to potentiate alignment of mind/body/spirit, wholeness, and unity of being in all aspects of care; tending to both embodied spirit and evolving spiritual emergence; opening and attending to spiritual-mysterious and existential dimensions of one’s own life-death; and soul care for self and the one-being-cared-for. These caritas processes occur within a transpersonal caring relationship and a caring occasion and caring moment as the nurse and other come together and share with each other. The transpersonal caring relationship seeks to provide mental and spiritual growth for both participants while seeking to restore or improve the harmony and unity within the personhood of the other. Rosemarie Rizzo Parse developed the theory of Humanbecoming within the simultaneity paradigm that views human beings as developing meaning through freedom to choose and as more than and different from a sum of parts. Her practice methodology has three dimensions, each with a related process. The first is illuminating meaning, or explicating, or making clear through talking about it, what was, is, and will be. The second is synchronizing rhythms, or dwelling with or being immersed with the process of connecting and separating within the rhythms of the exchange between the human and the universe. The third is mobilizing transcendence, or moving beyond or moving toward what is envisioned, the moment to what has not yet occurred. In the theory of Humanbecoming, the nurse is an interpersonal guide, with the responsibility for decision making (or making of choices) residing in the client. The nurse provides support but not counseling. However, the traditional role of teaching does fall within illuminating meaning, and serving as a change agent is congruent with mobilizing transcendence. Helen C. Erickson, Evelyn M. Tomlin, and Mary Ann P. Swain presented the theory of Modeling and Role-Modeling. Both modeling and role-modeling involve an art and a science. Modeling requires the nurse to seek an understanding of the client’s view of the world. The art of modeling involves the use of empathy in developing this understanding. The science of modeling involves the use of the nurse’s knowledge in analyzing the information collected to create the model. Role-modeling seeks to facilitate health. The art of role-modeling lies in individualizing the facilitations, while the science lies in the use of the nurse’s theoretical knowledge base to plan and implement care. The aims of intervention are to build trust, promote the client’s positive orientation of self, promote the client’s perception of being in control, promote the client’s strengths, and set mutual health-directed goals. The client has self-care knowledge about what his needs are and self-care resources to help meet these needs and takes self-care action to use the resources to meet the needs. In addition, a major motivation for human behavior is the drive for affiliated individuation, or having a personal identity while being connected to others. The individual’s ability to mobilize resources is identified as adaptive potential. Adaptive potential may be identified as adaptive equilibrium (a nonstress state in which resources are utilized appropriately), maladaptive equilibrium (a nonstress state in which resource utilization is placing one or more subsystems in jeopardy), arousal (a stress state in which the client is having difficulty mobilizing resources), or impoverishment (a stress state in which resources are diminished or depleted). Interventions differ according to the adaptive potential. Those in adaptive equilibrium can be encouraged to continue and may require only facilitation of their self-care actions. Those in maladaptive equilibrium present the challenge of seeing no reason to change since they are in equilibrium. Here motivation strategies to seek to change are needed. Those in arousal are best supported by actions that facilitate change and support individuation; these are likely to include teaching, guidance, direction, and other assistance. Those in impoverishment have strong affiliation needs, need their internal strengths promoted, and need to have resources provided. Nola J. Pender developed the Health Promotion Model (revised) with the goal of achieving outcomes of health-promoting behavior. Areas identified to help understand personal choices made in relation to health-promoting behavior include perceived benefits of action, perceived barriers to action, perceived self-efficacy (or ability to carry out the action), activity-related affect, interpersonal influences, situation influences, commitment to a plan of action, and immediate competing demands and preferences. Patricia Benner described expert nursing practice and identified five stages of skill acquisition as novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient, and expert. She discusses a number of concepts in relation to these stages, including agency, assumptions, expectations and set, background meaning, caring, clinical forethought, clinical judgment, clinical knowledge, clinical reasoning, clinical transitions, common meanings, concern, coping, skill acquisition, domains of practice, embodied intelligence, embodied knowledge, emotions, ethical judgment, experience, graded qualitative distinctions, intuition, knowing the patient, maxims, paradigm cases and personal knowledge, reasoning-in-transition, social embeddedness, stress, temporality, thinking-in-action, and unplanned practices. Juliet Corbin and Anselm L. Strauss developed the Chronic Illness Trajectory Framework, in which they describe the course of illness and the actions taken to shape that course. The phases of the framework are pretrajectory, trajectory onset, stable, unstable, acute, crisis, comeback, downward, and dying. A trajectory projection is one’s personal vision of the illness, and a trajectory scheme is the plan of actions to shape the course of the illness, control associated symptoms, and handle disability. Important also are one’s biography or life story and one’s everyday life activities (similar to activities of daily living). Anne Boykin and Savina Schoenhofer present nursing as caring in a grand theory that may be used in combination with other theories. Persons are caring by virtue of being human; are caring, moment to moment; are whole and complete in the moment; and are already complete while growing in completeness. Personhood is the process of living grounded in caring and is enhanced through nurturing relationships. Nursing as a discipline is a being, knowing, living, and valuing response to a social call. As a profession, nursing is based on a social call and uses a body of knowledge to respond to that call. The focus of nursing is nurturing persons living in caring and growing in caring. This nurturing occurs in the nursing situation, or the lived experience shared between the nurse and the nursed, in which personhood is enhanced. The call for nursing is not based on a need or a deficit and thus focuses on helping the other celebrate the fullness of being rather than seeking to fix something. Boykin and Schoenhofer encourage the use of storytelling to make evident the service of nursing. Katharine Kolcaba developed a comfort theory in which she describes comfort, comfort care, comfort measures, and comfort needs as well as health-seeking behavior, institutional integrity, and intervening variables. She speaks of comfort as physical, psychospiritual, environmental, and sociocultural and describes technical comfort measures, coaching for comfort, and comfort food for the soul. Ramona Mercer describes the process of becoming a mother in the four stages of commitment, attachment, and preparation; acquaintance, learning, and physical restoration; moving toward a new normal; and achievement of the maternal identity. The stages occur with the three nested living environments of family and friends, community, and society at large. Afaf Meleis, in her theory of transitions, identifies four types of transitions: developmental, situational, health–illness, and organizational. Properties of the transition experience include awareness, engagement, change and difference, time span, critical points, and events. Personal conditions include meanings, cultural beliefs and attitudes, socioeconomic status, and preparation and knowledge. Community conditions include family support, information available, health care resources, and role models. Process indicators are feeling connected, interacting, location, and being situated and developing confidence and coping. Outcome indicators include mastery and fluid integrative processes. Merle H. Mishel describes uncertainty in illness with the three major themes of antecedents of uncertainty, appraisal of uncertainty, and coping with uncertainty. Antecedents of uncertainty are the stimuli frame, including symptom pattern, event familiarity, and event congruence; cognitive capacity or informational processing ability; and structure providers, such as education, social support, and credible authorities. Appraisal of uncertainty includes both inference (use of past experience to evaluate an event) and illusion (creating beliefs from uncertainty with a positive outlook). Coping with uncertainty includes danger, opportunity, coping, and adaptation. The Reconceptualized Uncertainty in Illness Theory adds self-organization and probabilistic thinking and changes the goal from return to previous level of functioning to growth to a new value system. Each of these models or theories will be applied to clinical practice with the following case study: May Allenski, an 84-year-old White female, had emergency femoral-popliteal bypass surgery two days ago. She has severe peripheral vascular disease, and a clot blocked 90% of the circulation to her right leg one week ago. The grafts were taken from her left leg, so there are long incisions in each leg. She lives in a small town about 75 miles from the medical center. The initial clotting occurred late on Friday night; she did not see a doctor until Monday. The first physician referred her to a vascular specialist, who then referred her to the medical center. Her 90-year-old husband drove her to the medical center on Tuesday. You anticipate she will be discharged to home on the fourth postoperative day, as is standard procedure. She is learning to transfer to and from bed and toilet to wheelchair. Table 2-1 shows examples of application in clinical practice that are not complete but are intended to provide only a partial example for each. Study of these examples can provide ideas or suggestions for use in clinical practice. Readers are encouraged to develop further detail as appropriate to their practice.